The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it “refers to a great or deeper degree of processing of material to be learned. Whereas in non-reflective learning, material is simply taken in with little or no active thinking (e.g., memorization) or understanding, reflective learning engages a large amount of the learners thinking or cognitive capacities. Related terms/concepts include: deep level processing, critical thinking, relativistic thinking” (Herod, 2002).
Reflection-in-action teaches adults how to interpret information been given to them in an immediate situation and then assists them with processing it and turning around to use in the same encounter. "The practitioner allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation which he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomenon before him, and on the prior understandings which have been implicit in his behavior. He carries out an experiment which serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomenon and a change in the situation" (Schön, 1983, p.68).
Reflection-on-action teaches the adult to reflect on the earlier encounter. "When a practitioner makes sense of a situation he perceives to be unique, he sees it as something already present in his repertoire. To see this site as that one is not to subsume the first under a familiar category or rule. It is, rather, to see the unfamiliar, unique situation as both similar to and different from the familiar one, without at first being able to say similar or different with respect to what. The familiar situation functions as a precedent, or a metaphor, or... an exemplar for the unfamiliar one" (Schön, 1983, p.138).
References
Herod, L. (2002). Glossary Of Terms. Adult Learning: From Theory to Practice. Retrieved February 2, 2009, from http://www.nald.ca/adultlearningcourse/glossary.htm#r
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because reflective practice, or reflection, is considered such a vital component of the learning process (Schon, 1987)that strategies and supporting tools warrant continued research in the learning sciences (Sawyer, 2006).
In teacher education, reflective practice supports teachers as they move from routine actions in their teaching to more considered, cognitative actions. This transformation makes teachers "better," or aware of their pedagogical practice and beliefs (Vallance, 2006). Teacher education programs incorporate reflective practice as a valued and effective record of teaching practicum (Farrell, 1995a; Murray, 2003)
Reflective learning is the process of internally examining and explaining an issue of concern, triggered by experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and results in a changed conceptual perspective.
Atkins and Murray (1993), Scalon and Chernomas (1997)described a model of reflection used in nursing education which may be applied in various domains: 1. awareness - individual acknowledges lack of information in explaining something 2. critical analysis - need for knowledge and application of new information 3. new perspective - individual has gained insight into understanding the concepts, situation or event.
Baker (1996) suggests that critical thinking skills are fundamental to reflection, other writers indicate that reflection is essential for critical thinking to occur.
You have quite lengthy quotes on reflective learning, so I was wondering how you defend it in terms of your own application. To see the “unique””, the “unfamiliar”, to experience “surprise”, or to “reflect on the phenomenon” must require a lot of prompting to be effective, to achieve the appropriate reflection at any given time. In order to accomplish all of this, the facilitator must prompt questions such as: What worked? What didn’t? What did you do? How does this apply? What happened? How did we…? And so on and on and on. Mezirow (2000) defined three types of reflective learning (as cited in Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 145). Because of the various types of questions and reflections, what type of reflection do you consider most beneficial?
1. One that involves a summary of experience? 2. One that aids in interpreting the experience? 3. One that rests on a qualifying decision? 4. One that emotionally involves the participants feelings?
Taylor (2000) states that “critical reflection is granted too much importance and does not give enough attention to the significance of affective learning…” (as cited in Merriam et al., 2007, p. 151). The reflection process appears to be very time consuming, so how do you defend the time spent on prompting, the “down” time and the “wait” time as students reflect in an appropriate manner? Another time issue involved is monitoring and assessing reflection. How do you monitor and assess individual reflection in this paradigm? With so much “reflection”, how can you spend quality time in responding to say 20 students? 100 students?? Or 800+ students like I have in any given semester?
Reference:
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
While I strongly believe in reflection and some type of reflective learning, this is an issue that I struggle with for a couple of reasons. The first reason is the sheer magnanimity of the whole process, especially with over 800 students. Another problem I must deal with is the cultural boundaries of the Chinese. Uba (1994) stated, “Schema engenders general knowledge, beliefs, and expectations” (as cited in Torres, Howard-Hamilton, & Cooper, 2003, p. 62). Students from a collective society are taught not to question the teacher, the methods, the outcome, etc. It is also not within their culture to question themselves, but to assess blame to themselves if the perceived message is not reached—it is their fault. This is not just an issue here in China, but there are many Asians living and working in the U.S. To make these adults question would only result in raising the affective filter and shutting them out of the process. “In order for people to interpret experiences positively and to learn effectively they need to have confidence in their abilities, good self-esteem, support from others, and trust in others” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 165). By forcing this onto learners from a collectivist society you will lower their self-esteem and definitely lose their trust—and you will never know it! So, my questions are:
1. How are cultural boundaries addressed in this paradigm? 2. How will prior schema be activated in order to teach the reflective process to them? 3. What methods could be used to teach this reflection process to these reluctant students?
References:
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Torres, V., Howard-Hamilton, M.F., & Cooper, D.L. (2003). Identity development of diverse populations: Implications for teaching and administration in higher education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mary I agree with you when you state that the reflective theory as thinking in a deeper context about the new information. I think that this also directs the learner to be motivated to look at past experiences in a new light, be able to see connections between experiences and then make new meaning out of these two together and form a whole new.I am not sure that reflective learning can apply to all students. think about the ones who tend to do the same all the time no mater what. are they assimilating new information into their lives or are they just satisfied with the status quo and are happy to remain in a specific mode? I guess that would make them more of a non-reflective learner.You also mention critical thinking, which is a higher level of thought and application of meaning to a situation. Learned reflective thinking will enhance the ability to solve problems which is a component of critical thinking (Huang, 2006). Peltier, Hay & Drago (2005) suggest that the definition of reflective thinking is an exploration of an issue. this suggests to me that any learner should engage in some form of reflective thinking in order to apply new information to their situation. this also suggests to me that learners should be motivated to actually do this. I feel like I have run in a circle and now am looking at how do we stimulate learners to generate this type of learning? Seems simple to me, we see a problem and then we have to determine methods of 'fixing' the problem by assigning meaning to the components and then figuring out a manner of integration of this new information. You also mention that teachers can reflect on material but i think this is a practice that each learner must discover within themselves in order to become reflective learners/thinkers in their own right. Interesting post. elizabeth gatz
reference Huang, I. (2006). Reflective learning for student data modeling. Allied Academies International Conference.10(2), p. 29. Retrieved on February 4, 2009 from ProQuest online library.
Peltier, J, W., Hay, A. & Drago, W. (2005). The reflective learning continuum: reflecting on reflection. Journal of Marketing Education. 27(3), p. 250-263. Retrieved on February 4, 2009 from ProQuest online library.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it connects the their prior and current knowledge to the new information. (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgardner, 2007). The reflective learning theory complements the constructivist theory as well, compounding the importance of using past experiences to enhance our decision-making skills in everyday scenarios. Although the reflective theory, at the educational level, is focused mainly on the androgogical applications, the reality is that reflection takes place at a subconscious level (Smith, 2001) as well.
We as educators go through the reflective process of learning on a daily basis. I teach geometry to high school students. As I am going through my period, I am assessing how the students are accepting the new knowledge. I reflect on first period compared to fourth period. I reflect on this year compared to last year. How are they doing with the material? Are they overwhelmed? Do they understand it? How do I know they understand it?
Merriam, et al (2007), write about the reflective theory as a means of retaining newfound knowledge. Over the years, I have done this in several different ways. An obvious tool educators use is to have the student sit down and write a reflective paper on what they learned that day or that week. If the student takes the assignment seriously, it truly can help them retain and apply the concepts. Another way I have used reflective practices is to have the students get together into group and talk about how their past experience can relate to the material being covered. This not only, helps the individual to reflect, but also gives each student the opportunity to hear other and possibly link their past memories of experiences to someone else’s.
References: Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, M. (2001) Donald Schön: learning, reflection and change. Retrieved from: http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-schon.htm on February 3, 2009.
One of the most compelling ideas that I ran across in reviewing the literature for this module was the idea of tacit learning, which, as I understand it is knowing without understanding how or why we know.
As I understand it, reflective practice includes this perhaps by memorializing such intuitive processing. Would that be your understanding as well?
Thank you, Suzanne Crawford
Reference
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), 395–409.
Hi Matt, How would you know if your students were overwhelmed, retaining the material you teach or if they learned anything at all? Thanks, John Hedrick
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because reflection is about maximizing deep and minimizing surface approaches to learning. In exploring how reflective practice can support and aid learning, it is helpful to acknowledge how we learn. First and foremost, learning is individual. All learners begin from their own origins of knowledge and have their own set of experiences to draw upon. Secondly, learning is contextual, students need to understand that the context in which they learn and operate affects how and what they understand. Another key point is that learning is relational. In order to make sense and achieve a deep understanding of material and experiences, students need to relate new information to existing knowledge and experiences, which is best achieved through the process of reflection. This enables you to think about the what and how we learn and understand that it impacts on how well we do. Some may adopt a surface approach to learning, which may have little intrinsic interest in a subject and are more likely to view assessment tasks as a means to an end.
Some students may adopt a deeper approach committed to understanding and taking the time to think about feedback in order that they may improve their performance. The difference between the two approaches is that the deep learner reflects on experience.
In conclusion, reflection can be viewd as having four main purposes. (1)Reflection helps learners to understand what they already know,(individual). (2)Identify what they need to know, (contextual). (3)Make sense of new information and feedback,(relational). (4)Guide choices for further learning,(developmental).
Boud, Keogh,and Walker noted that Reflection is an important human activity in which people recapture their experience that is important in learning(1985:19).
Boud,D., Keogh, R., Walker, D., (1985).Promoting Reflection in Learning, A Model. London:Kogan Page
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it connects prior and current knowledge to new information Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgardner, 2007). Argyris and Schon (1992), states that Theory in Practice, is “implicit knowledge’ and ‘tacit knowledge’ are used interchangeably and taken to mean that ‘we know more that we can tell and more than our behavior consistently show (Kinsella, 2007).
One example that comes to mind from my own experience I had just been assigned to the psychiatric unit of the institution when an inmate in his fifty enters the hall area where I was dispensing medication. He stated in a strange, frighten and antagonistic voice “I need a drink of blood now” he also had a cup in his hand. I quickly stood up and ordered the inmate to stand down, that I will call the hospital for his drink of blood, only if he go and sit in the corner. I dispatched Search and Escort Officers to remove him from the building, and then I called the psychiatric department. The psychiatrist informed me that the inmate was a Charles Manson follower; he killed his family and did drink their blood. Schon (1983) states that knowing is in the action and is revealed by spontaneous, skillful execution of the performance, which one is characteristically unable to make verbally explicit (Kinsella, 2007). In particularly, Schon call upon Birdwhistell work: (1) There are actions, recognitions, and judgments which we know how to carry out spontaneously; we do not have to think about them prior to or during their performance. (2) We are often unaware of having learned to do these things, we simply find ourselves doing them. (3) In some cases, we were once aware of the understandings which were subsequently internalized in our feeling for the stuff of action. In other cases, we may never have been aware of them. In both cases, however, we are usually unable to describe the knowing which our action reveals ( Schon, 1983).
References Kinsella, E. (2006, August). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286. Retrieved February 1, 2009, doi:10.1080/14623940600837319 Kinsella, E. (2007, August). Embodied Reflection and the Epistemology of Reflective Practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(3), 395-409. Retrieved February 1, 2009, doi:10.1111/j.1467-9752.2007.00574.x Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schon, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. United State of America: Basic Books.
You indicated in your post the importance of learning being individualized. As an educator, how does one provide individualized education in a classroom setting. Isn't reflective theory more of a emotional types of learning? It seems difficult to encourage reflective thinking in a regular classroom setting. Please let me know what your thoughts on this are. Thanks!
The reflective theory best explains why adults learns because " . . . it creates and clarifes meaning in terms of self, and which results in changed conceptual perspective" (Boyd and Fales, 1983). The fundamental theory that one learns from their personal experience was established by Dewey (1902). More than a hundred years later, a significant body of research has tested and tried this theory to be true in application.
As a proponent that the most influential learning takes place through the evaluation of mistakes, I contend that reflective learning theory allows for an individualized approach to mastering concepts. Through reflection in action, the student is able to take in the new information and apply to their existing framework of experiences.
However, I stongly contend that reflective learning theory must be established within a "safe" environment that values and respects the student disclosure of experiences. Research indicates that journal writing is a helpful tool as a means to acquire and improve reflective thinking (Grieman & Covington, 2007; Dinkelman, 2000; Goldsby & Cozza, 1998). Therefore, it is my practice to implement journal writing both in class and out of class to open the boundaries for students to produce a process of reflective learning -- not necessarily the correct answer. I respond to the journal writing with questions to continue the process.
Boyd, E.M., & Fales, A. W. (1983). Reflective learing: key to learning from experience. Journal of Humanistic Psychology 23(2), 99-117.
Dewey, J.(1902). The child and the curriculum (Chicago, University of Chicago Press).
Dinkelman, T. (2000). An inquiry into the development of critical reflection in secondary student teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 195-222.
Goldsby, D.S. & Cozza, B. (1998). Using reflective journals in college education courses. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 34(3), 112-113.
Greiman, B.D., & Covington, H.K. (2007). Reflective thinking and journal writing: examining student teachers' perceptions of preferred reflective modality, journal writing outcomes, and journal structure. Career and Technical Educaton Research 32(2), 115-139.
Suzanne, I looked at this idea you have poised and I think that the tacit knowledge we employ in our reflection of new information does indeed play a component in our use of this theory. according to Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartne (2007, p. 172)tacit knowledge is important in gathering data which will relate to our assimilation of new knowledge. Last week I taught a lecture about what is knowledge. one concept I talked about was 'ultimates' which are known to be true but are nor proveable. I was reminded of this lecture when I read your post. we are utilizing our differing forms of knowledge all the time, even when we do not really consciously try to use these type of knowledge. One thing that we did to help cement this idea in class was through a game that forced each student to take a group of cards and find the pair, other students carried cards. I have a very diverse group of students in culture and age differences, and it was interesting to see how they figured out which was their pair. some of the pairs were related in tv shows or foods or couples. depending on your era , culture and or age caused the studnets to rely on different methods of figuring out their pair. they young ones did not get the old time comedians or old couples but were good at the new couples, some of the differnet ethnic groups did not know the foods like chicken and cumpings they wanted to make it apple dumplings. we ahd fun but also proved a point about the types of knowledge they all use everyday. thanks fro the comments. elizabeth gatz
reference Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it considers one's own experiences in applying knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schon, 1996). Adults do not like situations in which they are being told what to do without being given the opportunity to become a participant in the process. Adults learn by listening, watching, doing and by being coached in their doing. Not only do they apply what they had heard and learned from lectures, books and demonstrations but when they participated in actions that were related to their current experiences, they were able to better retain the information (Brockbank, 2007).
Reflective learning can also be beneficial for professional development (Ferraro, 2000). In a study done with teachers, reflective learning helps them understand their own teaching style, which in turns makes them more effective in their field. I have seen this in my role as the Director of Orientation and First Year Experience. I think back to before I started my doctoral journey and how I used to work with incoming transfer students (which consists mostly of adults) and realized that I was doing them a disservice. I was programming for them the same way I programmed for the 18-19 year old students. As a result, they would leave the orientation early without getting all of the information that they needed. Through reflective practice, I have been able to better assess the needs of the adult learner so that during the orientation process, they will remain focused, happy, and more willing to stay for the entire session.
References: Brockbank, A. (2007). Facilitating reflective learning in higher education. Buckingham, GBR: Open University Press
Ferraro, J. M. (2000). Reflective practice and professional development. ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education. Washington, D.C.
Schon, D. A. (1996). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Matt, based on your post it is obvious that tenets found in reflective theory appeal to you. I would like to know if during your research you read any information on measurable outcomes for reflective theory? Also, are you in a position to gauge if older students understand the refelctive process more so than do students in general; or, do you think reflective theory is applicable with all students?
The Reflective theory best explains why adults learn because Reflective learning according to Schon is “a world that is constructed through versions, as opposed to a world that is ‘found’ or ‘ready-made’.” Schon ( 1987) continues to reinforce his theory by suggesting that educators whom philosophically engage in their work are reconstructing their sphere of knowledge and challenging what “might be”. ( Kinsella, 2007) Therefore, Shon’s (1987) ideology towards educators “They have professional ways of seeing their world and a way of constructing and maintaining the world as they see it” ( Kinsella, 2007) suggest accepting things at face value is easy to do but to reflect on what one visualizes, hears and or conceptualizes is the ability to critically think. Reflective learning enables an individual to energize their brain by critically analyzing information, situations, and concerns which in turn begins the process of reflective learning based on previous knowledge. This process facilitates significant change in self assurance and creation of perception. Schon believed thoroughly in “reflection in action” which means: “the way we change practice and theory during practice.” In the next two paragraphs I am going to explain how Lev Vygotsky, Constructivist and critical thinking supports Schon’s theory of Reflective learning.
Lev Vygotsky coined the word “scaffolding” meaning the “zone of proximal development, which represents the gap between a student’s actual level of independent problem-solving ability and the potential level that s/he could reach with knowledgeable guidance.” (Sorenson, 2006, p. 300) With the understanding that Lev Vygotsky is referring to the individual learner; this can be applied to the instructor as well. The capability of an individual varies and with guidance from the instructor one can potentially reach their prospective. (Witzig, 2009)
In accordance with Schon’s reflective learning, this process reinforces my belief in a constructivists view point. Constructivists believe taking a proactive role versus a passive role in learning is the key to comprehension and retention. Constructivists deem that people learn through active interaction and critically analyzing opposing views and beliefs maintained by others. (Witzig, 2009) When Educators challenge themselves and provide perceptual differences to challenge what they already know this process exemplifies the reflective learning theory. As an educator, one can design/redesign their curriculum to incorporate challenges and critical thinking about the world around them. Many changes and ideas that transpire stem from spontaneous actions produced during interaction with his/her students or colleagues.
In conclusion implementing the process of critical thinking, scaffolding and reflective learning simultaneously allows the instructor to generate creativity, diversity and opposing views conveyed by students and or colleagues, allowing for and forcing the instructor to cognitively conceptualize the surroundings. (Witzig, 2009) As Schon (1983) admits it is through acknowledgement and restructuring of the problem the solutions becomes unraveled through spontaneity of actions. Schon describes this as reflection-in-action. (Kinsella, 2006) Therefore, Schon (1987) admits when educators define the implied, and adhere to principles of significance; optional behaviors guide the reality of practice and develop a vast cavity of potential actions. (Kinsella, 2006)
References Kinsella, E. A. (2006, August). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286. doi:10.1080/14623940600837319
Kinsella, E. A. (2007, August). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(3, Pt. AN 28556858), 395-409, 15. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9752.2007.00574
Merriam, S. B., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: Comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sorenson, E. K. (Editor). Enhancing Learning Through Technology. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/waldenu/Doc?id=10118565&ppg=341
Witzig, K. (2009). Knowles’s assumptions assignment. Unpublished manuscript.
Each one of us has a different way of learning. Reflective learning theories are based on the notion that the learner reflects on their own past experiences and apply that knowledge to practical situations. The reflection process is a complicated process that may result in creating new knowledge and different techniques in this knowledge society and information age. In our global and technological society only gathering information is no longer sufficient; successful learning is evident when individuals are able to reflect, critically analyze, synthesize and apply knowledge (Bloom, 1956). The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it allows them to reflect and think while problem solving as well as afterwards.
David Kolb (1984) argues that individual learning is a transactional process between personal knowledge, and the external environment (a social process). Experiential learning maximizes developmental opportunities within this framework. Kolb’s learning model is a cycle where the learning process draws on orientations that are polar opposites: active and reflective, concrete and abstract. The model shows these dimensions in opposite quadrants of a learning cycle. Learners move through the sequence of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. The Learning Cycle suggests that it is not sufficient to have an experience in order to learn. It is necessary to reflect on the experience to make generalizations and formulate concepts which can then be applied to new situations.
However, different people prefer to start at different points on the cycle. Although the cycle remains the same, the tendency to start at different points on the cycle identifies preferred learning styles. For example, reading the online materials from the class modules and applying them with past experiences and instruction constitutes active learning.
Schon (1983) takes another approach to reflective learning. His beliefs are based on three major assumptions: (1) those involved in reflective practice are committed to both problem finding and problem solving; (2) reflective practice means making judgments about what actions will be taken in a particular situation; and (3) issues of power and oppression in the judgment making process need to be addressed. The most predominate way adult educators have incorporated an interactive reflective mode is through what Schon (1987) has termed "reflection-in-action". Reflection-in-action assists us in reshaping "what we are doing while we are doing it" (Schon, 1987), and is often characterized as being able to "think on our feet". In the field of education, it refers to the process of the educator studying his or her own teaching methods and determining what works best for the students. For example, as former instructor I drew on past teaching and research experiences and explored storytelling. I used storytelling as a way to address difficult situations and at the same time maximize learning in the classroom. It was an effective way to share insight and form critical evaluations about the class.
As a reflective learner, you’ll think about how you’ll use new knowledge and skills in your future activities – so learning is always linked to action, and theory to practice. It’s also useful to reflect on how you learn best. This may be through private study, networking with peers, formal courses, mentoring, or a combination of techniques. While each person seems to have a bias, we each adapt our style to suit the challenge. The more flexible we are, the better we are at adapting to different learning situations.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. London: Longman Schön, D. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think in action, London: Temple Smith. Kolb D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning experience as a source of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Reflective learning is a great way for the adult learner to process information, as it is necessary for most adults to make a connection with their past life experiences and relate them to their current learning objectives. Reflection is important to expanding your thinking beyond what you know at a given time. The ability to think about or "ponder" what could be as opposed to what is leads to critical thinking. Which, of course, is essential to scholarly work.
The Reflective Learning Theory is one that is very interesting to me. As I learn more about what this theory entails, I am inclined to believe that it is a very liberating way to learn. As individuals think about what "is", they cannot help reflect on what brought them to this point. In an effort to find a solution, conclusion, or to bring closure to an issue, it is natural to think over those things that have transpired in your life, or to use other experiences that relate to what is happening now. In order to gain additional knowledge or to put what we think we know into perspective, we most certainly have to connect with our past. Reflection is akin to playing a tape on an endless loop, trying to make sense of what you are seeing and hearing. The hope is that you can come to some conclusion about these reflections can help bring about the answers you seek. Applying this type of learning to academics opens the mind to new and different possibilities which goes beyond the purely academic. It allows student to think freely and to think more creatively in the process. Educators who are able to teach from the reflective perspective will be able to engage students in such a way that new ideas are formed and dialogue is encouraged, because there really is no wrong or right. Donald Schon refers to this teacher interaction as "reflection-in-action" (1987). Schon wrote "when a teacher turns her attention to giving kids reason to listening to what they say, then teaching itself becomes a form of reflection-in action" (1987).
Reference:
Schon, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner, San Francisco: Josey-Bass.
This a general post and not directed to anyone in particular. I am not an educator, so it is extremely difficult to relate to any discussions on classroom teaching except from an adult learner perspective. I can merely speculate as to the most ideal teacher-student relationship and how effective teaching and teaching styles impact learning. However, I do believe that reflective learning is an open and emotional connection for the student to make with his/her present environment. Teachers who are able to engage students on this level provide a more successful classroom experiences for their students. If students are not engaged, they are not learning. Reflective learning gives the students an opportunity to think abount or "ponder" if you will, what "can be" as opposed to "what is" using experiences from "what was". In other words, exploring the past to make connections to the present and beyond. This process leads to critical thinking and analysis which is important to the learning process for all students.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it demonstrates that a person cannot truly learn something until he/she becomes an active participant in the process. The theory states that to become a reflective learner, one must reject the practice of rote memorization of facts or material as a learning tool. A person, according to the theory, cannot attain a full understanding of a topic unless he/she is not engaged in an active or critical learning process (Moon, 2004, p. 68). It is clear then, that reflective learning require students utilize all of their cognitive abilities to achieve learning (Herod, 2002). All practice-based learning relies heavily on the concepts articulated by Donald Schön. He postulated that in order to gain a new understanding of a topic or to fully learn and comprehend new information, a practitioner: Allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation that he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomenon before him, and on the prior understandings that have been implicit in his behavior. He carries out an experiment that serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomenon and a change in the situation. (Schön 1983: 68)
Schön’s theory stated that a learner had to learn to think things through rather than rely on already established concepts and ideas. Schön felt that the uniqueness of every learning opportunity negated a generic approach to learning following pre-established patters; rather, he felt that careful reflection on past experiences and an increased reliance in more considered cognitive actions. Schön felt that learners who were encouraged to think carefully about what they did while they were doing it, tended to achieve a more profound learning experience. A reflective learning experience is not one based on the let’s see how this works approach, rather, it is based on a let's think it through first behavior (Daudelin, M.W., 1996, pp. 36-48). I feel that this theory blends well with the concept of adult learning. An adult learner is used to being a “decision maker in his life” (Vella, 2002, p.129), so he/she is “self-directed, self-motivated, experienced, ready-to-lean, and in need of knowledge”. An adult learner views new information subjectively, and relates new information to past experiences by often asking "why.” Also, an adult learner examines his feelings about what he/she is learning (Smith, 2002). Schön spoke of “reflection-in-action” (Schön, 1983, p.68), and “reflection-on-action” (Schön, 1983, p.138). According to him, reflection-in-action is about interpreting information received in an immediate situation, whereas reflecting-on-action is about reflecting on earlier encounters. I feel both of these are of value to an adult learner, because it forces the student to engage in a cognitive learning process that is likely to result in a more profound level of understanding of the subject matter. In summary, the reflective theory is very effective because it makes a student question assumptions, utilize critical thinking skills, focus on in-depth analyzis of facts, take time to recall and analyze actions taken and the processes used to arrive at these actions in order to to achieve personal growth and optimal learning outcomes.
References Cheek, B. (2008, October). The process of reflective learning. Retrieved February 4, 2009, from http://gp-training.net/training/educational_theory/reflective_learning/reflect.htm Daudelin, M. W. (1996). Learning from experience through reflection. Organizational Dynamics. 24(3), 36-48. Herod, L. (2002). Adult learning: From theory to practice. Retrieved February 3, 2009, from http://www.nald.ca/adultlearningcourse/glossary.htm#r Moon, J.A., (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning. New York: Routledge. Peltier, J.W., Hay, A. & Drago, W. (2005). The Reflective Learning Continuum: Reflecting on Reflection. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(2), 205-223. Retrieved February 6, 2009, from ProQuest Education Journals database. (Document ID: 1189106001). Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Smith, M. K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and anadragogy. Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm. Vella, J. (2002). Learning to listen, learning to teach: The power of dialogue in educating adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because the theory relates previously learned information to help solve a problem or to gain new skills. Learners need to be able to analyze situations or problems, determine the nature of the problem and find a new solution to the problem by making a connection to prior knowledge (Prayer, 1993). Prayer (1993) argues that "self-reflective learning means to become critically aware of what has been taken for granted about one's learning and the assuptions underlying one's values and behaviors" (p. 44). For a learner to become critcally reflective, the learner must draw on assumptions, premises, and experiences. Prayer (1993) offers several strategies for educators to help develop reflective learning such as: role playing critical questioning, and engaging in dialogue with other colleagues.
Schon's (1992) work with reflective learning included the notions of reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. As I understand it, reflection-in-action is similar to thinking on your feet. We examine our experiences and feelings, and act upon the situation at the present. This is also termed tacit knowledge (Kinsella, 2007). I found this to be very interesting. Our initial reactions to a given situation are very important. Thinking-on-action occurs later, after the situation has subsided. Upon reflection to these reactions we can gain knowledge and understanding.
References:
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), pp. 395–409.
Prayer, F. (1993). Critical reflectivity learning theory: Implications for the workplace. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 43-48.
Schon, D. (1992). The theory of inquiry: Dewey's legacy to education. Curriculum Inquiry, 22(2). 119-139.
Shari, I wrote my post on transformative learning theory. I read your post on the reflective learning theory and relate it to many reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action situations that I use with my students. I critically think about these situations and reflect my helpful strategies toward transferring students’ learning. I feel that every time I use the reflective learning strategies, the more transformation of learning outcomes occur. As you mentioned, students are always “aware of what has been taken for granted about one's learning and the assumptions underlying one's values and behaviors” (Prayer, 1993), but it is unstable development notion. In science classes, I teach community college students, reflective ways of learning that works best when solving problems, finding solutions, and analyzing situations. On the other hand, transformative strategies work best, as you summarized, when playing critical questioning, and engaging in dialogue with students. I enjoyed reading your post.
Reference: Prayer, F. (1993). Critical reflectivity learning theory: Implications for the workplace. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 43-48.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it uses methods of reflection to connect adults to their past and current knowledge and helps them to understand and form a relationship to newly found information. (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007). Reflection allows an adult to use higher order thinking skills to dissect an experience and then formulate the best theoretic method to relate and improve on a past assumptions or theories. Reflection is related to the term tacit knowledge because adults collect information that is related to their formulation of new knowledge (Merriam, et al 2007). Adults learn by using various methods. I believe that assimilation is a common practice in which adults learn. I notice that many educators read information and monitor other teaching techniques of other educators who they feel have found new and existing ways to be effective teachers. According to Schon, adults relate to their own personal experiences in applying knowledge. For example, during staff developmental meetings, I often relate current subject matters to prior experiences that I have encountered. By using this method this teaching method, I provide more understandable meanings and concepts in which they also can relate their past experience to. As a result of using the reflective theory, my teachers are more willing to engage in meaningful, productive conversations.
Reference: Merriam, S.B, Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.) San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Schon, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
I completed my initial blog on the experiential learning theory. While I sincerely believe experience is a major part of the educational experience, I think there is a positive similarity between the reflective and experiential theories.
I agree with your discussion the importance of learning in terms of doing, not just learning through "rote memorization." I think part of learning through doing is based on our previous experiences.
Because I think learning is based on some of our previous experiences, I respectfully disagree with the following ideology: "Schön’s theory stated that a learner had to learn to think things through rather than rely on already established concepts and ideas." While I agree thinking things through is certainly important, I believe that we rely on our experiences and previous knowledge to help us think things through. This idea does not suggest the reflective learning theory is incorrect in stating a new idea may come from learning to think things through. I just do not think we automatically know how to do this concept. Our previous experiences help us learn how to think things through. And we get better as we continue to practice thinking in this manner.
Reference Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Reflective learning expounds on the idea of learning from experiences. In the context of professional development, reflection is necessary as one gains “self-knowledge” (Kuit, Reay, & Freeman, 2001). One believes this way of knowing is innately built into the individual, acting as a spring welling up to achieve ones understanding of the world. This understanding of one’s world, I propose is the explanation of one’s development of intuition. This intuition is reflected on the premise that knowledge is gained through reflection of experiences and is “embodied” (Kinsella, 2007). Further, these experiences are ones perception of the world, one’s reality. Given that, in the context of development, does not the individual expand cognition through a continual process of reflecting? According to Kinsella (2006), this maturational process does involve the expansion of cognition. Therefore, I propose that this development of cognition leads to the ability of the individual to adapt to circumstances (Kinsella). For example, a nurse begins a leadership program with two of one’s colleagues, with the intentions of gaining experience and knowledge. After several days of preparation and studying, the nurse takes the first exam. Upon completing the exam, the nurse reflects and discusses with one’s colleagues preparatory strategies and information presented. Using this reflective process, the nurse then changes the strategy in preparing for future exams to ensure success. Therefore, it is illustrated in this scenario how reflective learning assists the individual to identify and resolve problems. Also, with stated scenario, effective reflective practices are not completed in isolation, meaning to effectively gain from the reflective process it is necessary for one to collaborate with others to meet set challenges ((Kuit, Reay, & Freeman). I believe reflective learning has other implications for education. As one prepares to become an educator or return to education, the use of journaling or peer observation is helpful to assist the educator to reflect and learn from experiences (Loughran, 2002). This reflective process provides a meaningful method for the educator to approach learning how to teach, thus, supporting one’s professional development (Loughran). Kinsella, E. (2007). Embodied Reflection and the Epistemology of Reflective Practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education 41(2), 395-409. Kinsella, E. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schon’s theory of reflective practice: echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice 7(3), 277-286. Kuit, J., Reay, G., and Freeman, R. (2001). Experiences of reflective teaching. Active learning in higher education 2(2), 128-142. Loughran, J. (2002). Effective reflective practice in search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education 53(1), 33-43.
Reflective Learning can be applied to both formal and informal learning situations. The process of reflective learning allows an individual to make judgments in difficult and routine every day sitiuations. The decisions or judgements are made based upon information/data stored form past and current experiences.
The characteristics of mature reflective judgement indicates that students must also develop the ability to view situations fro multiple perspectives, the ability to search for alternative explanations of classroom events, and the ability to use evidence in supporting or evaluating a deceision or position(Ross,p.23). Understanding the definition of reflective learning and its use, can create a framwork too help students evaluate their progress towards a goal.
References: Ross, D.D. (1989). First steps in developing a reflective approach. Journal of Teacher Education. 40,22
Kinsella, E.K.(2007). Embodied reflection and epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education. 41,3
Micheal Strohschein The reflective leadership theory best explains why adults learn because it predicts future decisions based on past experiences. An adult will use the experiences gained in their past to make appropriate decisions when the time arises. In the book Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide supports this theory by stating that reflective learning allows a person to make judgments based on experience and prior knowledge ( Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner , 2007).There are two concepts that are important to reflective learning theory. These two concepts are: reflection-on- action and reflection-in-action ( Merriam, et.al). According to Merriam (2007) reflection-on-action involves thinking through a situation after it has happened. This type of reflection allows individuals to take a look at decisions that have been made recently and compare them to decisions and reactions made in the past. Reflection-in-action is where the participant has to quickly make a decision on the spot. It has also been referred as reaction triggered by surprise (Merriam, 2007). An individual who is flexible and adaptable can easily find success with this type of concept. Adult learners feel validated by their past experiences and need to feel like they are invested in their studies. Reflective learning theory allows adult learners to do this while still gaining valuable skills.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mary, I agree. Tacit is knowing more that we can say. We have a number of experiences that we are unable to verbalize however, given the right conditions or situation, we will know how to react by triggering subconscious memories.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because through reflection individuals can attain a greater sense of the learning process they experience. Reflection brings together the cognitive and affective domains involved in the learning process (Thorpe, 2000). Reflection and introspection are usually used synonymously, but reflection insinuates maintaining a certain distance from an event that allows the learner to view it from a different perspective. Teachers can extend learning out of the classroom by fostering reflection exercises among students, thus promoting continuous learning as a way of life. Furthermore, reflection is applicable to both knowledge and experience (Thorpe, p. 3). It would seem that reflection is a natural process in all individuals. This notion of reflection being natural derives from Merriam, et. al. (2006) who states that individuals tend to “plan, monitor, and reflect upon…learning experiences”.
The major significance of reflective learning resides in its capacity to provide the individual with insight that leads the learner to make generalizations and draw conclusions about the new knowledge (Thorpe, 2000). Reflection of learning focuses on the process of learning and not on the context. Thorpe establishes that learning is about achieving understanding and applying the new knowledge to different situations and opportunities that put to test previous learning. Constructivism advocates believe that “all knowledge is constructed, at least in part, through a process of reflection” (Kinsella, 2006, p. 279). As a learning strategy, reflection contributes to three learning theories: experiential learning, perspective transformation, and cognitive monitoring and metalearning (Thorpe). In experiential learning, reflections constitute an essential component with which learners recall a variety of events, the implications of the experiences and the values that are tested. Reflection in perspective transformation allows the individual to initiate critical analysis of experiences. In cognitive monitoring, learners use reflection to consider what they know and how they know it, in other words, to regard the process of learning.
Chetcuti (2007) studied the use of portfolios as reflective instruments. She concludes that reflective exercises can help individuals resolve similar situations by providing a framework of past decisions and actions. Reflections provide opportunities for critical analysis of personal strengths and weaknesses so that improvement may occur. Also, writing reflections instill individuals to discover a voice that fosters personal identity. Nevertheless, reflective learning activities should not be introduced without purpose, for their effectiveness could be hindered (Thorpe, 2000).
Reflective learning is learning from experience (Merriam, et. al, 2007). Its value resides in the applicability to learning experiences and to life experiences as well. Planned activities can be incorporated to different courses effectively fostering the learners’ growth and development. There can be no wrong or right in reflective learning. The degree of development will depend on the depth of the questions asked in the exploration of answers to life’s questions.
Resources:
Chetcuti, D. (2007). The use of portfolios as a reflective learning tool in initial teacher education: a Maltese case study. Reflective Practice, 8(1), pp. 137-149. Kinsella, E. A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective practice: echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), pp. 277-286. Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Thorpe, M. (2000). Reflective learning and distance learning – made to mix by design and by assessment. Information Services & Use, 20(2), pp. 145-158.
The reflective learning theory allows adults to learn through reflective practices. It is a combination of doing and thinking. Reflection is a cognitive process where learners make sense of experiences and gain new knowledge. Reflective theory has constructivist underpinnings (Kinsella, 2006). Constructivist learning theory occurs when new knowledge is constructed when a learner uses reflection and prior knowledge. Educators can challenge students to critically reflect on experiences in a trusting open environment. Educators can challenge learners assumptions and validate knew assumptions through reflection. Reflective practice allows for professional development and knowledge enhancement of the learner. The learner can examine cultural influences, goals, and practices to gain knowledge using reflection. Reflection can be used as an analytical exercise to think through a situation after it happens. I feel reflective learning theory is ideal way to develop professional nurses. Nurses need a broad knowledge base to be able to care for clients. Reflection teaching methodologies such as journaling, portfolio development, concept mapping, and simulation are often used to develop critical thinking in nursing education. As a nurse educator, I have found that reflective methodologies are an effective way to teach nursing students. I often use my personal experiences as a nurse to explain concepts to students. On a daily basis, I use personal reflection to guide my teaching and to deal with everyday life decisions. I feel reflection is something we automatically do to deal with everyday issues. Kinsella, A. K. (2001). Reflections on reflective practice. The Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 68(3), 195-198. Kinsella, A. K. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donal Schon’s theory of reflective practice. Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286. Kinsella, A. K. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), 395-409. Merriam, S. B., Cafarella, R. S., and Baumgartner, L. M. (2007) (3rd Ed.). Learning in Adulthood a Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
To Ella, I found as an educator reflective practice has guided by careeer also. Each semester, I learn something new from each group of students because they are so different. I adapt exercises, assignments, and readings each semester becuase of my reflective practices. I would like to challenge you with your quote that for reflective practices to be successful they need to be in collaboration. I think it can be successful either way. I wonder which would have more impact on the learning process?
M. Brown, You mentioned the goal is that some students become deep learners. How can we as educators ensure that all students experience reflection at some level? How do we assess the depth of their reflections and learning?
If the reflective theory depends on the reflective process of the adult, what happen if you have bad experiences and your reflection is based on those? What will be the impact on the new learning?
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it is an "active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge" (Dewey, 1933, as cited in Tauer & Tate, 1998). Reflective learning allows one to realize the often unaware perceptions and judgements that one makes in specific situations so as to promote changes in those habits and decisions that may have otherwise become routine (Epstein, 2008). According to Dreyfus (as cited in Epstein), master reflective learners constantly question and are thus able to continually grow and contextualize their knowledge for any situation. Reflective learning thus provides a foundation, it seems, for one to take every situation in context either during or after the fact and analyze it in order to learn from it for the future.
This type of learning style is enforced through narratives, journals, and blogs, among other things. The reflective nature of this learning promotes critical thinking based on intuition, outcomes, and processes. Interestingly, reflective thinking is not hindered by routine thinking that allows one to fulfill daily tasks, thus freeing the mind for more critical reflection on the important learning situations (Tauer & Tate, 1998). It may be suggested then, that reflective learning promotes transformation and experiential learning as outcomes for the learner; in other words, reflective learning may be the basis for the other learning theories. Without reflective learning, transformation and experiences would not hold as great value in learning.
References
Epstein, R.M. (2008). Reflection, perception and the acquisition of wisdom. Medical Education, 42, 1048-1050.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Tauer, S.M. & Tate, P.M. (1998). Growth of reflection in teaching: Reconciling the models. Teaching Education Journal, 9(2), 143-153.
posting by Shaneisha Dodson for Chandra. In your posting you wrote that teacher education, reflective practice supports teachers as they move from routine actions in their teaching to more considered, cognitative actions. Why do yo think the above transformation makes teachers "better," ?
Pam, To take information and present it in a way that is unique or new should be the goal of all educators. “When a practitioner makes sense of a situation he perceives to be unique, he sees it as something already present in his repertoire. To see this site as that one is not to subsume the first under a familiar category or rule. It is, rather, to see the unfamiliar, unique situation as both similar to and different from the familiar one, without at first being able to say similar or different with respect to what. The familiar situation functions as a precedent, or a metaphor, or... an exemplar for the unfamiliar one” (Schön, 1983, p. 138).
All reflection is seen as beneficial and is dependent upon on the individual and it would be ill of me to say that one holds greater weight than another. In addition the process of reflection is also unique to the individual and topic and may take different lengths of time depending on the variables. The reflection may take place in the classroom or it may take place in the future. It is a stepping stone/groundwork and is dependent on the intended outcome of the learning experience. According to the Encyclopedia of Informal Education (2009) the impact of Donald Schön 's work on reflective practice has been significant - with many training and education programmes for teachers and informal educators adopting his core notions both in organizing experiences and in the teaching content.
References
The Encyclopedia Of Informal Education. (2009). Donald Schon (Schön): Learning, reflection and change. Retrieved February 6, 2009, from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-schon.htm
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
Good morning, my name is Nicholas. Excellent and well-written post. I enjoyed reading about your implementation of journal writing for your students, in and out of the classroom. I was just curious of what do you have them write about? Is an open forum, where they write what they feel? or Do you mandate the topics for them to journalize? Also, did you ever try any other techniques, methods, or practices to try and open the boundaries for students to produce a process of reflective learning? Please take care and have a great weekend.
I find that effective reflection does work best when collaborating with other peers. Yes, the reflective process can be completed in isolation, but one would get more feedback and offered a different angle of looking at necessary changes when incorporating others ideas into those relflections. I do agree, there are times when the reflective process is done best strictly by the indiviudal. Such as, when one is reviewing teaching strategies of practices. I still contend that deeper meaning would occur in collaboration.
I agree with your comment that the reflective process offers the individual a deeper understanding of the material presented. That as one is presented additional material, ones understanding is buildt from previous expereinces. My question then is would you consider this process of understanding, or expanding ones world a precursor to intuition?
When you state "reflective learning is the process of internally examinig and explaining as issue of concern....resulting in a changed conceptual perspective," Would you consider that this "changed conceptual perspective" provides an explanaition of ones social cognitive development?
Teri Gwin here; Reflective practice as clarified by Kinsella (2004;2007) in her two articles that take Schon's concept and actually apply it to practice have supported for me a way to approach my new nursing faculty to express their "tacit" knowledge. I found this theory to be very beneficial for giving validity to what is often times devalued in professions that require a scientific foundation but work with the human factor, like nursing. That Kinsella is an Occupational Therapist by original training helps me to connect with her explanations and statements due to the fact that she finds ways to express complex thinking using a common language of health care service. However, it seems that both Schon and Kinsella imply that experience may be a key factor reflective practice. I found an article by Bobay,(2004) that questioned whether experience really mattered in the process of reflective thinking or practice. She found that experience actually lent itself to a cookbook style of thinking and not the complexity of reflective thinking in solution finding. She used Newman, (2002) and Benner (1984) to support that transformation of thinking must occur in reflective practice. "that it is not enough that a nurse has lived through the experince but ..must be changed in some way for it to be meaningful." (Bobay,2004,p.313) The question arises for me; so what if we have tacit knowledge, if it is not transformative for our practice is it really representative of reflective practice? Can one be reflective and not be transformed?
You have posted some excellent points regarding this theoretical process. But, I would like to comment that, although each theory attempts to address how an adult learns, no one theory is inclusive. You are correct in your statement regarding the lack of cultural implications presented with this theory. I believe then, it would be the responsibility of the instructor to incorporate cultural points in ones presentation of material. Your next question regarding activating schema and motivating those who are reluctant in accessing ones schema. To possibly address your questions I would suggest developing course activities that require the student to reflective on past expereinces and past courses. In the nursing program, students are required to access there past expereinces to learn and grow. As each course one completes leads to another course which one will access meaterial learned to gain further understaning. By developing such curriculum which builds on previous courses, I believe will assist your students to come out of their cacoon and take charge of ones education.
An additional thought about your comment on the reflective theory complements the constructivism and this reflective process often is at a subconscious level. I agree with your discussion, but, I would like to name that subconscious thinking as possibly intuition. As one reflects on world expereinces, lessons are learned and concepts are arived. I believe this could be called intuition. It is a way of knowing which one is unable to express that knowing in words, but rather by actions. For example, caring for a client in the ICU, the nurse is watching the clients Blood Pressure rise with other measurements, although the client is unable to speak, the nurse intuitively calls the physician to discuss the status of the client, stating one is unable to place ones finger on the problem, but something to wrong (changing client health status).
Reflective learning is the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective. Reflection can lead to greater self-awareness, which in turn is a first step to positive change. It is a necessary stage in identifying areas for improvement and growth in both personal and professional contexts. When we reflect from our experiences we try to create meaning and internalize our learning. Developing reflective skills help individuals to gain a more honest perspective of themselves this in turn, means clearer identification of their strengths and of those areas that require a little more work. Learning is a process of active engagement with experience. It is what people do when they want to make sense of the world. It may involve the development or deepening of skills, knowledge, understanding, awareness, values, ideas and feelings, or an increase in the capacity to reflect. (Dunnais, 2009). In Kegan's view, reflecting on one's thoughts and feelings is not a simple process of learning to make new distinctions; it requires a transformation in the way the mind is organized. Robert Kegan's research points out that students need to alter the way they organize their minds if they are to be able to report accurately on their thoughts and problem-solving processes. If this is not achieved, students are likely to report, unconsciously, what they perceive others want them to report rather than what they actually think.
References: Durrani, S., (2007). Lifelong learning through innovations projects at DASS. Aslib Proceedings. 59(2), 187-189. Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
I see that you discussed the importance of using prior information for this reflective theory..and this seems to be so closely lined with the transformative theroy. In your opinion how do you see them as being independent and different from each other?
From what I understand in your blog, the succuss of reflective learing depends on one's cognitive capabilities. It therefore is the best approach when one has "normal" brain functioning. What about those who have learning disabilities or specifically, those who have suffered tramatic brain injury? I work in the special education field and am wondering if this is would be a good approach for my students or if it is something reserved for those who are "normal". Thoughts?
Jennifer, When I stated that "learning is individual, It was not meant to implicate that "learning was individualized." The intent of this statement was that individuals are responsible for their own learning and each individual regulates their own learning using self-knowledge and self-awareness to enhance their own learning. Like many aspects of studying, reflective learning in iteself is highly individual. I believe that those engaged in reflective practice in the classroom requires methods that brings teachers closer to the student viewpoint, while also recognizing that all viewpoints are mediated by individual experiences. Reflection both personally and in the classroom plays an intregal role both in the action and learning from it.
There is a close relationship between reflection and emotion or feelings that would possibly suggest that the use of reflection in the academic context could provide an appropriate channel for exploration or expression. I see this as perhaps as self-awareness and of course also as an important factor that could provide opportunities for emotional engagement in learning.
Reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action absolutely fascinate me in the area of K-12 education. I have often run into teachers and administrators who react rather than use reflection-in-action. And then once they are reminded of protocols or understand the rest of the story and have time to reflect on their actions, they hesitate to change the decision - mainly because they find it so hard to say - I'm sorry, I was wrong.
Are there any suggestions on how to work with adults who do that? Know they were wrong but will not reverse a decision or ruling? I'm not asking for a magic bullet, just some words of wisdom if anything has worked for you in similar situation.
Reflective Learning Theory The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it is based on their own experiences and how they view those experiences in the learning process. Moon (2004) describes reflection as “a form of mental processing - like a form of thinking - that we may use to fulfill a purpose or to achieve some anticipated outcome or we may simply 'be reflective' and then an outcome can be unexpected” (p. 82). There are many ways to describe reflection. The key to the reflective learning theory is it is an effective tool in teaching and helping adults to learn. Whenever students get an opportunity to connect their past to a current situation it reinforces learning and makes it more concrete. Bulpitt & Martin (2005) describes reflection as an opportunity to look at an event in a different way and then analyze the impact it has on ourselves and others. We are not only doing self-examination but we are also relating our values, beliefs, and traditions to that of other people. It is through this knowledge that the theory of reflection is born. Schön (1987) describes reflection as a process called reflection-in-action. It is as he states “the capacity to respond to surprise through improvisation on the spot” (p. 2). He looks at reflection as a way to create meaning by using your experiences as a basis for learning new information. This learning can occur when we are faced with situations that are unfamiliar or unexpected. This confirms what (Britzman, 2000) states, which is “To implicate oneself in one’s own narratives of learning and teaching means turning habituated knowledge back on itself, and examining its most unflattering—for many, its most devastating --- features. It also means exploring how even this most unflattering moment may offer insight into making significance” (p. 204). As adult learners explore how to use reflection as a tool for learning it can be a motivation of achievement in areas of previous uncertainty. This will also require educators to create an environment where reflection is encouraged and appreciated in addition to being a part of the reflection process. We must be willing to challenge our own thinking through asking questions like Allen and Wilmarth (2004) suggests, “How are we developing instruction that will incorporate reflection while still honoring the unique experiences of each student? When we allow students to reflect on their learning and create new ways of thinking, they can change the negative implications of the past. The overall goal of incorporating the reflective learning theory is as Ziegahn (2005), describes, the ability to move beyond what we know and challenge ourselves to understand the needs of our students in order to develop new perspectives. Educators need to be able to model the practice of reflective learning. Schön (1983) describes this exchange as the instance where “The practitioner allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation which he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomena before him, and on the prior understandings that have been implicit in his behavior. He carries out an experiment which serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomena and a change in the situation” (p. 68) As students see reflection in action, they will be able to create their own reflections as they make changes based on their learning. Although Kinsella (2007) contends that, the “implications for interpretation and application” has not been substantiated by research (p. 395). After researching the reflective learning theory, it is clear that it should be an integral part of the educational process. In the classroom, there are many ways of infusing reflection throughout the curriculum. It can be done in journals, peer sharing or through discussions. The end product is helping adults to learn; what better way is there than to use their own experiences and knowledge.
References
Allen, J. & Wilmarth, J. (2004). Cultural constuctivist zones. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(3), 214-226. Britzman, D.P. (2000). Teacher education in the confusion of our times. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(3), 200-204. Bulpitt, H. & Martin, P.J. (2005). Learning about reflection from the student. Active Learning in Higher Education, 6(3), 207-216. Kinsella, E.A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(3), 395-409. Moon, J. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. New York: Routledge. Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books. Schön, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. Presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C. Ziegahn, L. (2005). Critical reflection on cultural difference in the computer conference. Adult Education Quarterly, 56(1), 40-61.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because when an adult reflects upon an experience, they are developing thoughts about, opinions on, or even alternate ways to approach the situation they just experienced. This method of learning is deeply personal because it was initiated and completed by the individuals themselves and was not imposed upon them by other people. Reflection also allows the learner to expand their ability to think logically and critically, abilities that will help them adapt to most stressful situations in life.
What is involved in the reflective process? Reflection is based on experience, and according to Schön (1987), can take either the form of reflecting “on” action or reflecting “in” action, which he calls “reflection-in-action” (p. 27). When we reflect on action, we think back on an experience after it has occurred and ponder if our knowledge base had an impact on the outcome (Schön, 1987). Reflection-in-action is “action-present” and refers to our ability to respond to surprises as an event is actually occurring, with the possibility of influencing the impending outcome (Schön, 1987). In both cases, the learner walks away from the experience with knowledge that their actions were correct and can therefore be repeated, or knowledge that leads to positive changes in future actions.
In my experience as an instructor, I have learned more about my methods of instruction from reflecting on action. When a particular activity or method of delivery wasn’t successful, I didn’t repeat it. If students had a pleasant experience with something that I used in class, I would use it again in its present format or alter it in hopes of creating another positive learning experience. One of the most important things an instructor can do for their students is create experiences that are pleasant because those experiences are ones in which the students will reflect upon with sincerity. Referring to the instructor, Dewey (1997) said, “It is his business to arrange for the kind of experiences which, while they do not repel the student, but rather engage his activities are, nevertheless, more than immediately enjoyable since they promote having desirable future experiences” (p. 27). In the classroom setting, a student tends to learn more from reflecting on positive experiences. Negative classroom experiences will more than likely damage the student’s willingness to further learn from the instructor.
Although learning may occur in different ways, the reflective learning theory is by far the most personally fulfilling way that an adult can learn. It allows them to take an experience, critically analyze it, and create original thoughts on what the experience meant to them and how it impacted their lives on multiple levels. For instructors, personal reflection is the cornerstone on which they can develop methods of instruction that can have the maximum positive impact possible on their students.
References:
Dewey, J. (1997). Experience and education. New York: Touchstone.
Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because "reflection-in-action is the illuminating light of reason that penetrates the innermost reccess of the body" (Kinsella, 2006). Kinsella (2006) suggest that Schon believes that person can create his or her own world as apposed to a single world that is fixed or found. Through this created world, "it is possible to discover the consequences of one's moves, make inferences, and establish by experiement whether one's way of framing the situation is indeed appropriate" (Kinsella, 2006). As adults, we take part in this process everyday. We often times reflect over decisions we have made to see how we could have made it better. Especially if it turns out to be a really bad decision. Sometimes, we can reflect upon such decision and make a complete turn-around of the outcome.
References:
Kinsella, E.A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schon's theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286.
I would like to also add, from a personal viewpoint, that I give my students feedback as often as I possibly can. I believe that feedback is a great teaching tool that allows the students to reflect on past experiences. Reflections allows them to utilize prior knowledge, and formulate new ideas through predicting, reasoning, and inferencing.
Thank you for your response. You did an excellent job with your explanation and defending of your theory. I greatly helps me understand the theory you are discussing.
I agree that the use of portfolios would help stimulate reflective learning! Providing a source for the learner to examine, reflect and edit previously learned information with new information is a great way to add depth to the learning process. I also like to offer students a time for small group discussion about specific topics. This gives the student a chance to view the discussion from another point of view. Did you discover any other methods to stimulating the reflective learning processes? I appreciated reading your post!
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because adults, having lived longer than children, possess a wider range of life experience. There are on the job experiences, raising families, and experiences from working in their communities. These provide opportunities to learn through reflection. As according to Mezirow (2000), there are three types of reflections. They are content reflection, which is thinking about the actual experience, process reflection, which is thinking about ways to deal with the experience, and premise reflection, which is examining the pre-conditioned assumptions and values of the experience.
The important aspect here is to note that it is not sufficient just having the experience for learning to occur. It’s working the experience through in your mind afterwards that leads to the learning and change. Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1985, 1996) devised a model that consists of three stages, which include, returning and replaying the experience, attending to the feeling that the experience provoked, and reevaluating the experience. The last stage of the model is where the reflection comes about but the emphasis has to be on the second stage where the feelings are stirred.
Schon (1987) also supports the idea of reflective learning. He states, “we think critically about the thinking that got us into this fix or this opportunity; and we may, in the process, restructure strategies of action, understanding of phenomena, or ways of framing problems” (Schon, 1987, p. 28). Jarvis (1987, 2001) is also a proponent of reflective learning. He has two main ideas on learning from our experiences. There is the non-reflective learning where we remember the experience and keep repeating it or just follow orders. But there is also the reflective learning where we “plan, monitor, and reflect upon the experiences” (p. 52). This is the most crucial aspect to adult learning.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S. & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood (3rd ed.), John Wiley & Sons.
Reflective Learning Theory best explains why adults learn because it is constructivist in nature. As a result, reflective learning theory embodies the idea that adults learn by constructing meaning, which is a reflective process. Adults have a variety of experiences, when they reflect on them; new knowledge is constructed as a result of the reflection (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007).
Another dimension of reflective learning theory is Polanyi’s tacit knowledge (Kinsella, 2007). Schon refers to it as knowing-in-action (Kinsella). Knowing-in-action is the ability to intelligently respond to spontaneous situations. However, in a process of reflection it is possible to discover the root of knowledge that contributed to our response or action. One may also argue that the reflection-knowing-in-action process is simultaneous.
Educators are adult learners which require a significant amount of reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action in order to educate today’s youth. Reflection-on-action is required in evaluating lessons, formative assessments, and summative assessments. On an hourly basis many teaches re-evaluate a lesson previously taught in order to improve understanding for students. Reflection-in-action enables teachers to revise lessons as they are being taught and answer questions from their students. It also gives them the ability to devise new ways of teaching individual students that are having difficulty and answer spontaneous questions. Educators in an effort to build their expertise use reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action (Merriam, et al., 2007).
References
Kinsella, E.A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(3). 399.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. Jossey-Bass.
First of all I really want to thank you for such well thought-out piece of discussion. I for once, have a better understanding of the reflective theory. I found you said, “The major significance of reflective learning resides in its capacity to provide the individual with insight that leads the learner to make generalizations and draw conclusions about the new knowledge.” This is a clear proposition of how the learning process materializes. Nevertheless, there are some things in the standpoints, presented by Wellington and Austin’s that question the values and beliefs hold by the theory practitioner and their five step “filter”(Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 173). As an educator, I become I firm believer in the influence that we have upon our students; and therefore, in order to better understand our students, we need to have a broader thinking spam and a more flexible set of mores, values and beliefs, probably a mix of Wellington and Davis viewpoints & Freire’s theory of the oppressed. Can you share your thoughts on Wellington and Davis’s view points about the take that educator different beliefs and values may have on how the implement this theory take? Again, thank you for your observations, Héctor
lhemmila, In response: When learners interact in situations and develop their own activities for instance, to solve a problem, reflection involves being aware of the process by which they develop the activity and to take this process as the object of their thinking. Reflection involves reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of the experience. The reflective activity also involves the perception of relationships and the connections between the parts of the experience and provides opportunities for them to be actively engaged in what they are learning(Boud et al. 1996).
According to (Dewey, 1960), reflection includes observation the moment a learner begins to reflect he begins of necessity to observe in order to take stock of conditions. A good teacher guides students in the process of learning so that students have an understanding of how to approach the subject and actually learn, (a deep learning approach), instead of just memorizing), a (surface approach).
I do believe that all students experience reflection at various levels, some more than others, as we all hold varying beliefs formed from our experiences which influence behavior. To ensure that all students experience reflection to a measure as to the depth of their reflection to me would be immearsurable. However, there may be approaches to facilitate deeper learning in the classroom, which we are currently experiencing in our class such as: The encouragement of faculty/ student interaction and student/student interaction. Freedom in learning, making links with what students already know to encourage a sense of structure, being receptive and flexible, clear goals and standards, social climate, vocational relevance, and linking course topics to student lives and career aspirations.
Boud D., Keogh R. and Walker D.(1996). What is reflection in learning. In Boud, D., Keogh, R. & Walker, D. eds., Reflection: turning experience into learning. Kogan Page: London, 7-17.
Dewey, John (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: D. C. Heath
I would like to address the following question asked by Pam:
3. What methods could be used to teach this reflection process to these reluctant students?
First of all, if experience is going to be an integral part of one's learning process there has to be a way to connect what one has learned in the past with what is being learned in the present. This connector is reflective learning.
This coming term I plan to introduce reflective practice to my Chinese students in the form of journal writing, much as it is done in the Walden classes. I will begin by discussing this with the class and offering examples of how to do it. Each week the student will write about what they have learned in response to a prompt. Because there are large classes I will not be able to review every journal on a weekly basis, but I will reply at least once in a month.
I don't think that reflective learning has to be limited by cultural boundries because personal reflection is not confined to a particular culture.
The Transformative Learning Theory best explains why adults learn because it refers to how existing knowledge and experience is changed by new information and/or experiences. “It is transformative learning theory that explains this learning process of constructing and appropriating new and revised interpretations of the meaning of an experience in the world” (Taylor, 2008, p. 5).
When I am engaged in a learning experience, my knowledge is much stronger when I have past experiences or knowledge to use as scaffolding. “It is when an axon grows and meets up with another neuron that learning occurs. This explains why adult students need consideration of their prior experiences. Adults need to connect new information with old information” (Cercone, 2006, p. 297). This corresponds with Transformative Learning Theory.
References:
Sorensen, E. K., & Murchu, D. O. (Eds). (2006). Enhancing learning through technology. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.
Taylor, E. W. (2008). Transformative learning theory. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education. (119), 5-15.
Hi MaryJane, I would like to address your comments about instructors not saying "I'm sorry". I find this is true in many professional scenarios, and onen thing I do as a director of faculty is to first identify that it has occured then approach the person to help find a way that the apology can be given and face is still saved. It of course depends on the scenario; if it is student oriented where faculty gave misinformation, it is often best to make that a teachable moment for students and faculty to show that we can all learn from mistakes. If it is more agregious, and involves peer faculty I actually take the role of impartial mediator to help them find common ground. It is a practice of reflection to be able to apologise and recognize fallibility. And sometimes we just need to be reminded of that. Teri Gwin
Your response for Reflective Learning Theory has such a positive sound to it. I think that when you add reflective thinking into teaching even the very young children, you are helping to develop critical thinking. I also think that instead of the teacher being the only one in the room that is knowledgable, the student now has knowledge also. The teacher is there to help each individual build on that.
What do you think about what age is appropriate for introducing reflective learning?
First of all I would like to say I enjoyed reading your post. For many of us, change is good becuase it leads to better understandings of issues and life. Through reading your blog post, it made me "reflect" on my topic of transformative learning, as reflection is a factor for transformative learning to occur. Throughout history,it is know that peolpe are resistant to change, for the fear of the unknown. However reflective learning offers a us some much more. It gives us a chance to place things in perspective. You discuss self- awareness.
While this type of learning does allow self-awareness, does it really mean that because we take the time to reflect on problems, issues, or just life that we actually develop a sense of self awareness and make positive changes?
I am really concerned about that factor. As I think of rehablitated criminals, they have years and years to think about what caused them to be incarcerated in the first place, but many end up back in the same situation. Also let's take into account divorce. After a divorce, we assume that both parties reflect and that they have learned something from the marriage. But for many they turn around remarry and the same issues pop up again. So my question remains does reflection lead to self -awareness and if so, does it always produce a positive change?
The theory best works explains why adults learn because Schon has demonstrated how this theory works best in the professional setting. I have to admit, after first skimming Embodied Reflection and the Epistemology of Reflective Practice, I did not easily grasp Schon’s reflective theory. However, after further reading I was able to grasp this theory. Schon’s reflective theory has been viewed as an exploration of “thinking on your feet.” For some, especially in our work environment, this can be a usual occurrence. Schon explains that a person may react to a certain situation, knowing or unknowingly, by using past experiences. For example, a woman walking down a street notices a person approaching her in a hurried and threatening way. The woman reacts by screaming and jumping up and down, drawing attention to her. The person approaching her in a threatening way notices others noticing her. He then walks the other way. In this particular scenario, the woman remembered as a child that if you want immediate attention to yell “fire” (in this case, she just acted a fool). This brings us to Schon’s “implicit knowledge”, also known as “tacit knowledge”.
In Theory in Practice, the terms ‘implicit knowledge’ is taken to mean that ‘we know more that we can tell and more than our behavior consistently shows’ (Argyris and Schon, 1992, p. 10). Argyris and Schon further describe tacit knowledge as “what we display when we recognize one face from thousands without being able to say how we do so, when we demonstrate a skill for which we cannot state an explicit program, or when we experience the intimation of a discovery we cannot put into words’ (ibid.) (Kinsela, p. 397).
Once the person reacts to a situation using their past experiences, they may assess the outcome to determine if it could have been handled differently or used a different approach. Schon refers to this as “reflection-in-action.” By using past experiences, assessing the outcome of the behavior, it is used as a learning tool and provides an on-going learning process. For example, a manager experiences an irate client who is upset with the customer service that an employee provided. The manager intervenes, smiles and talks in a soothing voice to the irate customer. The customer now changes his tone and calms down. After the incident, the manager and the employee look back at the incident to make an assessment to see if the situation was handled properly or if it could have been handled differently. This is known as reflection-in-action.
It has been noted that Schon’s reflective theory has influences of constructivism. Meichenbaum (1995), stated, “The constructivist perspective is founded on the idea that humans actively construct their personal realities and create their own representational models of the world’ (p. 23). Furthermore, Dewey postulated that “all genuine education comes about through experience” (p. 13) (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, p. 162). This brings us to Schon’s reflective theory that knowledge is inherent as we utilize our experiences to form outcomes. From the outcome, we assess it and use it as a learning tool.
References:
Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. San Fancisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kinsella, E. A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schon’s theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), pp. 277-286.
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1). pp. 395-409.
Hi Mary@Walden, Thank you for your thorough post regarding the reflective theory and particularly your information on "reflection in-action" and "reflection on-action". It sounds quite similar to the information on critical reflection in regard to the transformative or transformational learning process. Mezirow (2000) explains three types of reflection: content reflection, process reflection, and premise reflection. I can see that these could be very similar to the "in-action" and "on-action" reflection in the reflective theory. Did you find this also to be true? Do you find that the reflective theory in itself is a bit more shallow that the transformative theory because it neglects other more holistic elements, such as experience and development? Once again, thank you for your comments. It did help me understand the reflective theory,and raised some questions for me as it relates to some of Mezirow's work.
I agree with your comments regarding the reflective process teachers experience. My company will often pilot a training program prior to rolling it out to all employees. The benefit of this is the fact that we can learn what went well and what did not. We can them make changes to the course so that we can provide the best educational experience possible for our students. Thanks for sharing your experiences.
I agree with you on addressing the needs of tranfer students who typically tend to be older adult students. Their menaing of new information is based on that they already know blended with only relevant information that you can provide. They will not be intersted as the 18-21 year old in spirit activities and socail functions.
I appreciate your in-depth discussion of reflective learning theory. Your description of thinking-in-action reminds me of metacognition (thinking about thinking), which is employed through critical thinking. Your summary helped me to realize that this act of reflection is already encapsulated in transformative learning theory, which I was asked to defend. Thank you for presenting this argument!
Very good post. After read your post I understood that theory, I had the same issue when read the theory at first. You had a good example that trigger my thinking about the theory. In some way it is true that we learn by reflection and through an internal process.
My only concern is the fact that if I had bad experiences when a new experience come my reflection will be based on those bad once. How we can avoid the use of the bad experiences to do a well define reflective process?
I have a question and a comment. When is it suggested to start teaching students how to be academically reflective? My middle school students can reflect to some degree socially and personally but very few reflective skills academically unless prompted. My comment is that it would be wonderful if you would include references so that others who may be researching this topic could use some of the reference materials you have sited in your post.
Joel... You write about how if an activity doesn't work you don't repeat it again. Because it doesn't work with one group of people, does that mean it won't work with any gruop of people? As a teacher, we all know that class groups vary dramatically from year to year and it depends on the make up of a group how you teach that situation. I know there are years when I do not attempt certain instructional projects because I feel the group cannot handle the task at hand. So in this instance would it be reflective learning if an instructor learned to gauge the group dynamics before trying a lesson again that had previously flopped?
Thanks so much for your comments! You are absolutely correct when you mentioned that groups of students are different and what might not work with one group may actually work with another one. I have noticed that I can have a tendency to act too much on instinct and not on reflection when it comes to how I plan various classroom activities. In my mind I remember how bad I felt when an activity failed miserably and just assume that it will do so again if I try it, thus deciding not to initiate it. Instructors must reflect on past experiences when it comes to evaluating their current instructional methodologies. If they don't, I feel they will get stagnate. Like you mentioned, instructors must also "feel out" the dynamics of a new class in order to predict whether an activity may or may not work. Reflective action is equally important for instructors as it is for students. Thanks again for your comments!
You refer to students learning from mistakes and the importance of a safe learning environment. What kinds of things do you do to ensure that the learning environment is safe?
Peg Erdman Said... Chandra, I absolutely agree with your post and am a great fan of reflective learning, but for purposes of this post I must ask a question. I have young adults in my classroom who have received good grades during their primary and secondary education. Now suddenly they are placed in a college classroom where the expectations are greater, the material more dense, and the time to learn much shorter. Many of my students are parents, employees and students. So my question is this: Can we expect our students to be truly reflective in an environment where they don't have enough time to memorize let alone reflect? I struggle with this every day, and would love to hear some feedback. Thank you for your post. Peg Erdman
From Linda Hemmila, To Cheryl : I agree with you. Mind and body work together. I have often seen this situation when people are critically ill. I also see it in the clinical setting with nursing students and how they respond to certain situations.
From Linda Hemmila To Mrytle Brown I agree, depth of learning is immeasureable. I think to some extent we as facilitators have to ensure the reflection process is occurring and learning is taking place with individual students. In the classroom, we might have to initiate a grading system similar to our online discussion grading criteria. Do feel that would be a way to measure reflection and learning?
To Lorna, I enjoyed reading your comments about reflective theory. It further reinforced what I had learned while researching transformative learning. Reflection is the key to successful in depth leaning. I liked your explanation about development and reflection in action. It reminded me of P. Benner's nursing theory "From Novice to Expert". Benner describes the "expert" nurse as one who knows when someone is getting worse, even before the labs or monitors begin to reveal the decline. The nurse has seen previous cases, reflected on them and made them part of her knowledge base. Reflection is the key to becoming a true expert. Thanks again for a great post. Peg Erdman
From Linda Hemmila To Teri Gwinn I agree individuals can be reflective and not be transformed. I do it myself. Things to think about in the classroom where we are using reflective methodologies. Does reflection with transformation need to occur in the learning situation? How does this apply to the classroom? How do we prevent this from happening and how do we help the students who can not reflect and transform?
From Linda Hemmila To Teri Gwinn I agree individuals can be reflective and not be transformed. I do it myself. Things to think about in the classroom where we are using reflective methodologies. Does reflection with transformation need to occur in the learning situation? How does this apply to the classroom? How do we prevent this from happening and how do we help the students who can not reflect and transform?
From Bob Schwallie The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because all of us have a vast amount of experiences that we draw upon and use to make decisions every day of our lives. Depending on our ages some of us have more experiences we can relate to than others. This doesn’t mean the more experience we have the more reflective we are. However according (Kolb, 1984.) all of us must have a willingness to involve ourselves in new experiences and use reflective observation to create concrete experience and start the learning cycle over again. In plan words (my own) you must reflect on these experiences to determine what you will take away and use. Three other theories that relate to reflective learning and using our experiences to learn from is reflective practice, reflection on action, and reflection in action. The reflective practice theory described by (York-Barr, Sommers, Ghere, & Montie, 2001) is a “deliberate pause to assume an open perspective, to allow for higher-level thinking processes. Actions may involve changes in behavior, skills, attitudes, or perspectives within an individual, partner, small group, or school”. (p. 6). The reflection-on-action theory simply states we think through a situation after it happens. How many times have we either made a mistake or did better than we expected and thought over what actions we take for this to happen. What could we have done differently to make this better? Finally, if we look at reflection-in-action which (Schon, 1987) explains is when we are “thinking on our feet” and “keeping your wits about you”. (p. 28). We can see this type of thinking is derived from our experience and reflective learning. Have there ever been a case when you were driving and you had another driver make a mistake and you had to react to avoid a collision. I am certain you didn’t take several minutes to think what you needed to do. You changed your driving almost instantly to keep yourself safe. That is reflection-in-action.
Bob Schwallie
References:
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experimental Learning: Experience as the source of learning and Development. In Merriam, B. S., Cafarella, S. R., Baumgarnter. M. L, Learning in Adulthood, Chapter 11, Traditional Learning Theories, (pp. 159-186) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
York-Barr, J., Sommers, W. A., Ghere, G. S., &Montie, J. (2001). Reflective practice to improve schools: An action guide for educators. In Merriam, B. S., Cafarella, S. R., Baumgarnter. M. L, Learning in Adulthood, Chapter 11, Traditional Learning Theories, (pp. 159-186) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Schon, D. A. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner. In Merriam, B. S., Cafarella, S. R., Baumgarnter. M. L, Learning in Adulthood, Chapter 11, Traditional Learning Theories, (pp. 159-186) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
I like the close of your post and how it shows the interconnectivity between all three of these theories. It reminds me of the old riddle of which came first...the chicken or the egg...
Can any of these three theories exist or function without experiences??? without reflection or thinking on the experiences??? If an adult learner does reflect on their experience and thus learns, can they avoid being "transformed" in some way???
What makes sense to me is that we should be looking for theory and the practical application of it to inform our practice as educators from a more global perspective. Instead of trying to fit ourselves into one of these theories or declare one of them to be the true Adult Learning Theory of all time, I prefer to take what I can from many of them and try to make myself a better insturctor for my students. The more diversified we can become, perhaps the more students we can reach?
Matt, you mentioned, “We, as educators, go through the reflective process of learning on a daily basis.” (2008). You also address how you implement reflective practice with your student in your classroom to teach geometry. However, I am interested in know how you personally, as a teacher, implement reflective learning? Brockbank, confirms that as teachers, “Whether trained as a teacher or not, the teacher (and student) engages in reflective practice”, (pg. 87).
Most teachers engage in casual personal reflective practice to improve the quality of their teaching while other teachers rely on the feedback provided by more formal and structured methods to drive their personal improvement processes.
I have seen teachers who do not have formal training in educational theory still use some modicum of reflective practice, even if they aren’t aware of the formal name or process. These teachers engage in reflective practice out of self-interest for general purposes of self-improvement as well as the quality of teaching that they deliver.
Do you follow a formal process for personal reflective practice like you implement with your students or do you practice a more casual form of reflective practice?
References
Brockbank, A. & McGill, I. (2007). Facilitating Reflective Learning in Higher Education. The Society for Research into Higher Education, McGraw Hill, NY, (2nd, ed.).
Ryan, Matt, (2008). Reflective Learning Theory Blog. Retrieved February 8, 2009 from https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=8644452486233456758&postID=9075832647185104463
You write that "Reflection-in-action teaches adults how to interpret information been given to them in an immediate situation and then assists them with processing it and turning around to use in the same encounter." How do you feel, then, about the role of the teacher? It seems that the job of teaching the student how to interpret information and assisting him/her with processing it gives a tremendous amount of responsibility, not to mention power, to the teacher. Do you think that Reflective Learning theorists adequately deal with this?
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it is characterized by profound attentive reflection and thoughts. The opposite would simply imply that the level of learning is knowledge according to Bloom’s Taxonomy. A reflective learner relates terms and concepts utilizing analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Through analysis one examines and relates information learned. Synthesis allows one to plan, propose, and rewrite concepts being learned. Based on learned information, an adult learner critic, prioritizes, and concludes what information is useful in constructing, evaluating, and developing their educational plan. Reflective learning recognizes the wisdom of adults to personalize information and based on prior experiences and knowledge, then internalizes the information and makes it relevant to their present point of view. Adult learners tend to use metacognition which helps them be successful learners and has been associated with intelligence (e.g., Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987; Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. A adult learner’s behavior toward a given learning task, monitoring understanding, and evaluating advancement toward the achievement of an undertaking all including using metacognition. Adult learners are successful using cognitive skills because they are reflective learners. Ertmer and Newby (1996) affirm that metacognition facilitate the deliberate performance of adult learners and that reflection provides the vital connection linking knowledge and control of the learning process. Reflection is a critical part of the learning process that occurs all throughout the learning process.
Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals; pp. 201-207 Susan Fauer Company, Inc. Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1996). The expert learner: Strategic, self-regulated, and reflective. Instructional Science, 24(1), 1-24. Merriam, S. B., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: Comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sorenson, E. K. (Editor). Enhancing Learning Through Technology. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/waldenu/Doc?id=10118565&ppg=341
Mary, I use reflective logs in the classroom for two purposes. The first is to ensure the student reflects and secondly to ensure the students write across the curriculm. Do you see this as a meaningful pursuit? rory
Hi Matt I appreciate your perspective on sharing reflective techniques as well as your practical examples. We know from Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) that reflective learning is a type of experiential learning (the other type being nonreflective learning. Hence, the lines between the two types of learning—experiential and reflective—can be somewhat “blurred.” That said, in your posting, you discussed how you form you students into groups so that they can relate their past experience to the material you are teaching. Help me to better understand why this example is reflective theory and not experiential theory.
Thank you Barry Lease
Reference Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
You said, "Without reflective learning, transformation and experiences would not hold as great value in learning". I couldn't agree more. Everything I've read in this course has lead me to believe, in the words of the song. "you can't have one without the other". I think good instructors should use whatever method or combination of methods work the best in their own unique situations.
Hi Ronald, Great post and thank you for sharing it. I enjoyed reading about the reflective theory. I agree with you about the fact that memorization must be rejected in order to be a reflective learner. As a parent,it is for this reason that I have a hard time with SOLs (that is what the standards of learning tests are called in Virginia). I think it is a shame to have the students memorize and memorize just for those tests. I wonder sometimes if effective learning is truly occurs during this time. I think engaging students is so much more effective than just drilling the information into them for the standardized testing. What are your thoughts on this? Lisa Minor
I enjoyed your post on Reflective Learning. And I understand the reflective comments regarding your students. However, would you agree that it was the experience of your students which allowed you to reflect not only on how they performed; but also how to address and/or enhance their performance?
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because reflective learning is the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective.
Reflective learning has six components related to the process of reflective learning. They are as follows: self-examination, estimate if it is effective, give birth to questions, analyze the difficulties and the gaps, strategies, and evaluate if it is effective.
Reflective is an ongoing process in which participants in a situation take time to examine their experiences, to think how things might be different, to think through these possibilities and to try out what seems to be the best option. For example, when staff members are working on a project for their school, they go through all these processes. They have a goal in mind and they are looking for the best way to approach it and create it. They look at where we are now, brainstorm ideas with questions, analyze what problems they foresee, and then they evaluate the plan to see if it will be effective. Reflective learning is a process which involves dialogue with others for improvement or transformation of the emotional, social, and political context of the learner.
The concept of teaching as reflection-in-action refers to the preceptor's thinking about the teaching/ learning process or problem-solving teaching/learning situations while directly engaged in teaching. The concept of teaching as reflection-in-action refers to the preceptor's thinking about the teaching/ learning process or problem-solving teaching/learning situations while directly engaged in teaching.
The concept of teaching as teaching reflection-in-action refers to the educators thinking about the teachin /learning process or problem-solving/learning situations while directly engaged in the learning process. Reflection-in-action teaches us how to understand information that has been given to us at a given time and then it assists us with the processing of the information.
Mary Reflective learning personal responsibility and accountability. In addition, this type of learning requires "active processing of thoughts" (Merriam,Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007,p173). Do you believe that all adult learners are capable of this just because they are adults? It is my opinion that those who learn this way are highly analytical and emotionally mature learners. I am honestly not sure whether a freshman in college -also an adult learner- is psychologically prepared to learn this way. What arena do think reflective learning is best suited for? Serena Huggins Merriam,S., Caffarella, R., and Baumgartner, L. (2007) Learning in adulthood, a comprehensive guide. San Francisco:Joley-Bass.
I agree that reflective learning can be a powerful tool in learning. Do you find that you must help your learners to critically reflect on their experiences or do you find they do it on their own. I can see how learners can connect past expereinces to new learning, but I think often they do not reflect on previous learning until a new and relevant situation occurs. I think reflection is most powerful when learners are reminded or guided to reflect on all learning so that new learning can begin immediately. What do you think?
Thank you for your interesting posting. I found your posting to be informative and interesting. I can appreciate the model of reflection you provided that described a technique used in nursing education but can also be applied in various other domains. While I do agree that some adults would learn best using reflective theory techniques, I am not convinced that this technique would be universally successful in all learning environments to achieve educational outcomes.
What topics or areas of instruction do you feel that reflective learning techniques may not work as effective as other techniques? Are teachers provided special training techniques in order to apply reflective practices? Even though using reflective learning techniques theoretically should result in successful learning outcomes, Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner (2007) related that this may not be the case depending upon the beliefs and practices of the teacher. The teacher must offer an orientation to reflective practice that is conducive to an effective learning experience for the students.
Van (SLG)
Reference
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
You point out some interesting facts/concepts when defending the reflection theory. I want to challenge the following comments (underlined):
Synthesis allows one to plan, propose, and rewrite concepts being learned. Based on learned information, an adult learner concludes what information is useful …….
Reflective learning recognizes the wisdom of adults to personalize information and based on prior experiences and knowledge, then internalizes the information and makes it relevant to their present point of view.
Ertmer and Newby (1996) affirm that metacognition facilitate the deliberate performance of adult learners and that reflection provides the vital connection linking knowledge and control of the learning process………
Based on those concepts (underlined) it seems as if the reflection theory allows the adult learner to stay ”closed in a box.” I come to this conclusion based on my understanding that while the adult learner is only making use of information that he/she deems useful, relevant, and the idea that the reflection theory provides control of the learning process. This leads me to think that the adult learner would not be open to new ideas nor allowed to think critically which is an important learning skill to exhibit in adulthood, especially in higher learning (graduate school). Brookfield (1987, chap. 5) explains that effective critical thinking strategies would allow for identifying and challenging assumptions, and exploring alternative ways of thinking and acting; diversity and divergence would be accepted and encouraged; and flexibility of format and direction, openness and critical analysis would be used in the learning environment. With this in mind I conclude that the reflection theory is more useful in childhood when learners are simply asked to use their memorization and recall skills (learning only what is useful), no critical thinking is expected.
How would you further clarify or defend your stand on the reflective theory?
Or….
How would you disagree with my criticism of the reflective theory?
MiaT
Reference:
Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. San Francisco, Ca: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
I appreciate how you captured the essence of the Reflective learning theory in your posting. As a critical reader of this learning theory, there seems to be two aspects that I would challenge as an adult educator. First, learning how to effectively reflect on past experiences may involve more psychological training then actual adult education. Not many people are skilled enough to think back to a past experience and reflect to where they are able to choose a better path. Second, true reflection can take some time. Placing a limit seems necessary but defeats the purpose.
It was significant that in your post you recognized how Robyn was able to marry and connect each theory at the end of her post. In the popular higher education book, Developing Critical Thinkers (1987) by Stephen D. Brookfield, he states that a theory is just that a theory. Brookfield explains that a singular model should not set the foundation for how we teach under the umbrella of higher education.
As a strong supporter of the Transformative learning theory I subsequently can see the benefit in understanding the “why” in the reflective theory as well. Kolb (1984) highlights conceptualized learning occurs via four different kinds of abilities: 1. An openness and willingness to involve oneself in new experiences 2. Observational and reflective also called reflective observation 3. Integration of ideas through analytical and abstract conceptualization 4. Decision-making and problem solving skills; active experimentation
As a professor of nursing we teach all of our students to start with the technique of assessment and we encourage reassessment for accuracy. It is clear that in each model the theorists attempt to reach the same outcome, a transverse learning experience that will ultimately yield social change. I concur that the more engaged we are as instructors about learning diverse theories in higher education the end result will mirror reaching more students.
References:
Brookfield, S.D. (1987). Developing Critical Thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experimental Learning: Experience as the source of learning and Development. In Merriam, B. S., Cafarella, S. R., Baumgarnter. M. L, Learning in Adulthood, Chapter 11, Traditional Learning Theories, (pp. 159-186) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
It seems as if the reflective theory is focused on the individual person, their knowledge and experiences. Even with the example you gave of students using journaling as a strategy to allow for reflective learning suggests that the whole person is considered. As you have indicated this would be great for professional development (individual development) and would allow the opportunity to display “keeping your wits about you”(Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007, pp 176).
What role would a coach (educator) play in ensuring that an adult learner with regards to the reflective theory is using their individuality to work well as a team player valuing the diversity of others in a group setting?
Reference:
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Reflective learning is a valuable tool in nursing education. It is a component of critical thinking and contains its emotive part (Brookfield, 1987). Allowing for and encouraging learners to reflect upon experiences in their learning process applies their emotional intelligence to this learning (Cherniss, C., Extein, M., Goleman, D, & Weissberg, R., 2006). It is this learning which will be the most meaningful to that learner and the best retained.
All nurses have had moments in their development which were more meaningful to them due to the events’ impact upon their emotional intelligence. For example, throughout my nursing career I have cared for many patients, most I would never remember. Yet, in my own professional development I have had my experiences with a few patients burned into my memory due to the emotional aspects of their situations. Mildred, a chronic lung disease patient, I will never forget because she called all the nurses “doll-baby” like my own grandmother did. This emotional connection between a clinical experience and my own personal experiences is a powerful one.
In the post-hiring education of new-to-practice (NTP) critical care nurses, reflective learning is a part of their entire classroom and clinical orientation experience. We have reflective journaling as an expectation of the new-to-practice critical care nurse. Through their journal writings, they will further process their experiences in this orientation period, describing and reacting to clinical and classroom events. How they emotively react to these events determines their impact upon these nurses and what they take from the experiences. Journaling offers NTP nurses the opportunity, through reflection, of availing themselves of those “aha!” moments of insight and of the ability to see their own progress along their professional development journey. This reflection on one’s own progress is of high value to the nurses’ professional self-image. For so many weeks they have learned and have had what they don’t know pointed out to them, yet now at this milestone of rereading what they had written surprises many on just how far they have advanced.
References
Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing critical thinkers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 14-36. Cadman, C. & Brewer, J. (2001). Emotional intelligence: a vital prerequisite for recruitment in nursing. Journal of Nursing Management, 9, 321-324. Cherniss, C., Extein, M., Goleman, D, & Weissberg, R. (2006). Emotional Intelligence: What Does the Research Really Indicate? Educational psychologist, 41(4), 239–245.
I would like to add to your comments that reflection by the students encourages the student to participate in the learning process. My experience as an adult learner was that whenever I was able to write a reflection on what I learned it forced me to analyze my strong areas as well as made me aware of areas that I needed grow.
In addition, from a teacher point of view, having students reflect on their learning, it provides me with an idea of the students' perspective of what they learned versus what my intentions of what they needed to learn. It provides for a comfortable environment where there is no wrong or right answer for their reflections and many times most of the students do formulate their own conclusions.
I agree with Wellington and Austin in that as teachers our beliefs and values can influence our choice of reflective activities. Teaching is all about being true to whom you are and what you believe in, but not at the cost of using the “power” or authority we may have as educators to deliberately seek to modify others’ views. Teaching must be about respect. For me, the individual is more important than the system. Through reflective practice, adult learners can transform their thinking and ultimately their circumstances – if they choose to do so. My personal application of the theory relates to the deliberative orientation stated by the scholars. I try to help students discover what learning means to them.
I have used a goal statement activity that provides for some reflection regarding the students' objectives for the course and the struggles they may face during the semester. Students start the assignment during the first week of class and after a few weeks, they can read what they wrote and see where they are in terms of the plan they set up to overcome obstacles. By revisiting the goal statement and objectives, they see purpose in learning, and they also get a chance to evaluate and modify the strategies they stated during the first week, if necessary.
I appreciate on post on reflective learning theory in relation to professional development. In education an underlying assumption is that all educators reflect on educational practices. I like the thought of formalizing professional development around dialogue and critical reflection activities. On a different note, I believe reflective learning theory fails to account for the cognitive aspect of the learning process. While , I certainly see the value in reflection, it seems to work better as a compliment rather than a stand alone theory.
Chandra. Great post. Your points of awareness, critical analysis, and new perspective on a teacher's reflection is most valuable when a lesson does not go well and at times painful, especially when lesson plans were well made and expectations were high. I think reflecting and learning to be flexible with knowledge and insight gained through experience are a teachers greatest resource.
Ted, your post was interesting and informative. This concept of reflective journalizing is a good concept. Maybe this needs to be done in education, especially with new teachers.
Was there a particular situation that brought about this idea of reflective journaling?
Yes, it was active and conscious process of thoughts. My action was spontaneously. I cannot explain it. Schon (1983) stated that our knowing is ordinarily tacit, implicit in our patterns of action and in our feel for the stuff with which we are dealing (p. 49).
Reference Schon, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. United State of America: Basic Books.
As I was reading your post on reflective learning, I was struck by how much of this type of "learning" I used as a therapist in sessions with adults. As one can imagine, for therapy to be effective it requires a lot of reflection and insight... Insight often gained through the act of reflection itself.
I can certainly understand, from many of the posts, how reflective learning is being applied in many classroom with adults. However, for me it was easiest to understand this type of learning through my experience as a Psychologist. Helping others to understand their actions, the result of these actions, and how they can choose to do something differenty to change their circumstances. To work with adults to help them grow emotionally, mentally, socially through self-examination can be very powerful. They come into sessions with knowledge and experience, but learn to examine their actions and think critically to see how they can move toward a certain goal. These goals include everything from "being happy" to "overcoming depression" to "controlling anger" to "becoming better parents", etc.
Even though many people do not automatically think of therapy as a true learning situation, I certainly believe it is.
As an educator I regretfully admit that reflective learning is not utilized as much as it should be in k-12 education. I think that many of my students would benefit from various reflective learning strategies. In my opinion, reflective learning best explains why adults learn because it differentiates adult students learning styles from those of k-12 students.
As a K-12 educator my interpretation of reflective learning is different from the purposeful examples found in my research. Moon 2004, states that "reflective learning is, essentially, a purposeful framing and reframing of material in internal experience with the intention of learning. There is not necessarily an input of new material of learning" (p. 99). I agree with this definition, and it even justifies journaling as a reflective assignment. However, reflective learning should be a thought provoking process that provides students with a valuable learning experience (Moon, 2004, p. 100).
According to his book Outsmarting IQ, David Perkins (1995) asserts that very little of k-12 main stream educational strategies are aimed at eliciting critical thinking. Those students who are reflective gain it naturally or get it from parents who model reflective thinking practices at home (Given, 2002, p. 106). This ideology supports my opinion that reflective teaching in k-12 education needs to be altered. In addition, it makes me question including reflective thinking in my curriculum. Though I know the benefits are apparent, why utilize valuable class time to teach something that will be learned naturally at home.
Moon, J. A. (2004). A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning: Theory and Practice. New York: Routledge.
Given, B. K. (2002). Teaching to the Brain's Natural Learning Systems. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
I agree that K-2 may be a little young for reflective thinking. However, I require my 2 year to think about what she did when she misbehaves. Nevertheless, once a student has reached middle school (I teach 7th grade)they should be challenged to think more critically about daily experiences. Our state mandated test requires critical thinking yet our curriculum lacks it. I think that the low test scores prove that our curriculum should be more challening and should include more reflective learning elements.
Good question. I think the role of the eudctaor would be to ensure that adult learners not only learn from their own experiences, but from the experiences of others. Group activities can help to facilitate this.
The more that I think about it, the more I see transformative learning theory and reflective learning theory working together. However, where I do see the difference is the role the educator plays. Transformative learning places a huge emphasis on mentoring. In reflective learning, the educator can still facilitate learning without serving as a mentor.
Reflective learning is used primarily with our transfer students due to the age of the population. They reflect on their prior experiences as a college student in order to understand our policies and procedures.
Our university has just developed a office that works primarily with transfer students; they visit many of the community colleges prior to orientation and give interactive workshops. With my office we develop strategies to assist them with making a seamless transition.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because in recent times, both nursing and teaching have sought to better develop and articulate those aspects of practice that might be described as being a part of their knowledge base. It is not surprising, then, that reflection continually emerges as a suggested way of helping practitioners better understand what they know and do as they develop their knowledge of practice through reconsidering what they learn in practice.
Reflection, then, places an emphasis on learning through questioning and investigation to lead to a development of understanding . Furthermore, there has been a recognition that reflection is important in sustaining one’s professional health and competence and that the ability to exercise professional judgment is in fact informed through reflection on practice. Hence, for those who see professional development partly as an emancipation of practice by learning through practice, reflection is indeed at the heart of the matter and equally valuable regardless of the profession.
The primary benefit of reflective practice for teachers is a deeper understanding of their own teaching style and ultimately, greater effectiveness as a teacher. Other specific benefits include the validation of a teacher's ideals, beneficial challenges to tradition, the recognition of teaching as artistry, and respect for diversity in applying theory to classroom practice. Freidus (1997) describes a case study of one teacher/graduate student struggling to make sense of her beliefs and practices about what constitutes good teaching. Her initial pedagogy for teaching was based on the traditions and practices of direct teaching. Her traditional socialization into teaching made it difficult for her to understand that her views of good teaching were being challenged in her practice. But the opportunity for exploration through reflective portfolio work enabled her to acknowledge and validate what she was learning
Freidus, H. (1997). The telling of story: Teachers knowing what they know. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), Chicago, IL. ED 409 274 Schon, D.A. (1996). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
You both hit the nail on the head! One cannot have experience without reflection or transformation, reflection without experience, or transformation without reflection or experience. The students sitting in your classroom each semester are a diverse set of individuals with differing needs and learning styles. As such, a global approach to many theories, not just one, is the best action an instructor can take in order to reach as many of those students as possible. Thank you for your comments and insights!
Peg Erdman said... Emineke and MaryJane, I really was reluctant to participate in this blog experience. I am a firm believer that too much of what we think is stored in the public domain when we participate in this type of discourse. Plus, I don't really know how to blog. But then I saw posting from both of you. I was glad to reconnect and hear from friends even if it is on a blog about learning theory. Keep in touch. Peg
RTapia You have made an excellent argument for Reflective Theory. Confucius said: "I hear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and I understand." This sums up nicely Schon's theory of doing to learn. Thank you for your explanation.
Reflective learning practice is making sense of your own experiences, learning from them, evaluating, and creating new concepts. Boyd and Fales (1983 p. 100) defines reflective learning as “a process of internally examining and exploring an issues of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective.” Merriam et.al writes “reflective practice allows one to make judgments in complex and murky situations,” (2007 p. 172) sort of on the lines of Schӧns’ reflection-in-action which “reshapes what we are doing while we are doing it” (2007 p. 176).
Critically thinking about these definitions, I began to wonder how I have utilized reflective learning theory. One life experience was rearing my children. My first child, I read a lot, talk to experienced mothers, was extremely cautious regarding the care of my child, and made a lot of mistakes that caused great anxiety. When my second child was born, I began to rethink the process, evaluated what did and did not work and how I could decrease the anxiety of motherhood. As a result, I developed new processes that worked well. By the time I delivered my twins, I was an old pro at motherhood. This is what reflective learning theory, utilizing your own experiences, evaluating, and developing new concepts. How are instructors using this process in adult education?
Well it is apparent that reflective learning theory is a key factor of adult education as many adult learners pull from their personal experiences as a learning methodology. They identify their learning styles, how to learn, the need to learn and how to retain the information. Students who attend my language arts classes are from various backgrounds and are usually in class to learn or enhance their writing and reading abilities. They have been taught specific methods to learn and have found that with life experiences learning styles change. These students bring purpose to their learning and are in class as a result of a promotion, career change, or simple desire. Nonetheless, their longing is to increase their knowledge and ability to learn. What is the teachers’ role in assisting students in this process?
It is the instructors’ role to teach students how to critically think about learning, ask the right questions, research the answers, and take ownership of their learning. As an instructor of language arts, I urge students to make up their own minds about learning and what effects’ learning has on creating a more lucrative future. No education is not about making money however it [education] can determine how much money one can earn. Statistics show no education, less money earned; more education, more money earned. Let’s face it, there are not many of us that actually go through the grueling process of education; attending class, astronomical amount of reading, writing papers, and testing if there were not a reward at the end of the process. Our human race is all about sacrifice but in the end we want something in return.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Boyd, Evelyn M., Fales, Ann M. Reflective Learning: Key to Learning from Experience. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 23 No. 2, Spring 1983 99-117
There are few types of reflective theoretical activities; reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action are just a couple. Reflection-on-action occurs after an event has taken place, while reflection-in-action occurs during an activity (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007). Reflecting on an action allows us to store, relive and evaluate a problem based on past experiences. Reflecting in action occurs during and event, thus the term “thinking on your feet” (2007). This is also something we do everyday in activities such as driving. Although we are tempted to drive based on our past we are constantly reminded by the unpredictability of others that we must be ready to reflect-in-action. There are even times while driving that past knowledge from our driver education class will not provide us with a solution, which means that one must go beyond what they have learned to accomplish the goal of getting where they need to go. Practitioners in action must be able to reflect-in-action and deal unpredictable situation by choosing multiple approaches to practice while creating tailored solutions to problems (Schon, 1983). “Professional proactive is a process of problem solving. Problems of choice or decisions are solved through the selection from available means of the one best suited to established ends” (as cited in Schon, 1983, p.40). Mezirow introduces three types of reflective types; Content reflection, process reflection and premise reflection. Content is about the experience, process is about ways to deal and premise is about beliefs and values (2007). Most people go through all of these forms of reflecting, however depending on a person’s experiences and influences the outcomes vary greatly. Reflecting is such a natural process that without it one would have to have amnesia. When we speak of experiential learning one may or may not always learn from their experiences. Just as with transformational learning, one may or may not be transformed by an event or experience. However, one can not tell one day from the next without the ability to reflect. Therefore, one has to remember what it is they are reflecting on to connect to the experience to be transformed.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because reflection allows the student to evaluate experiences and make changes in current ways of thinking and acting (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). This is most appropriate as throughout the lifespan we continuously need to adapt to changes in our lives. One way we do this is by using our past experiences, evaluate their effectiveness and choose to either use them or modify them into fit a current situation, There are two aspects of reflective learning. The first is reflection in learning. This aspect takes our experience within the context of action, allows us to reflect on those actions and then allows us the ability to make changes to the action. (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) Additionally, according to Schon, (1983), reflection in action allows us to continuously reevaluate situations and formulate new ways of doing them (Muslino & Mostrom, 2005, p 54). The second aspect, reflection on action reviews an action after it has occurred. This review consists of reflecting on a past action, evaluating it and making a determination as to what we may have done differently. The final step is to actually decide whether a change will be made and if so we must decide on how to carry it out (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Reflection also needs to be continuous. As we constantly take in new stimuli we compare it to our current situation and past experiences, process it and gain new knowledge. We are not bound to make a change as part of this reflection but need to realize that change can occur. We always have the ability to keep the status quo. Lastly, in analyzing the reflective learning theory Schon writes, “Learning is achieved through practical experiences, not through theoretical studies” (Ekebergh, 2007, p 332). Reflective learning can also be known as thinking outside the box. (Brookfield, 1987). This thought process is often encouraged and looked upon favorably in the nursing field. Even more specific is that the form of “reflection in action” refers to “critical reflection” which is described further as more than just a thought process but involving “intuition, improvisation and creativity” (Brookfield, 1987, p 155). In the world of nursing this is also known as “critical thinking”. It is imperative that nurses have strong critical thinking skills in order to assimilate, understand and act on the clinical information she/he receives on a daily basis. Current literature confirms the fact that nurses who successfully use critical thinking skills consistently provide better outcomes for their patients (Forneris & Peden-McAlpine, 2007). Therefore the reflective theory has strong implications and should be utilized and developed in all professions, specifically those who depend on strong analytical skills.
Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers. San Francisco, Ca: Jossey-Bass.
Ekebergh, M. (2007). Lifeworld-based reflection and learning: a contribution to the Reflective practice in nursing and nursing education. Reflective Practice, 8 (3), 331-343.
Forneris, S. G., Peden-McAlpine, C. (2007). Evaluation of a reflective learning Intervention to improve critical thinking in novice nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 410-423.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R.S., Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Musolino, G. M., Mostrom, E. (2005). Reflection and the scholarship of teaching, Learning, and assessment. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 19 (3), 52-66.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it is something all of us do without even knowing we're doing a 'learning theory'. There are two main headings under which Schon explains his Reflective Theory. These are: Reflection-in-action and Reflection-on-action. Reflection-in-action is when you are thinking on your feet, dealing with situations as they are happening. Reflection-on-action is after the situation has happened you think about what happened and what you did well as well as what you could have done better. I believe every person does this in their own way. Every person has reflected upon something they've done or something they've said and discussed with themselves how they could have handled the situation better or gave themself a brief pat on the back by saying to themselves they handled it alright. We also react within situations based on our prior experiences, the only difference I can see is that Schon believes we need to slow down the whole process to actively reflect at that moment. Another aspect to his theory is to be open to new ideas. Openness is important in all aspects of learning.
Schön, D. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think in action, London: Temple Smith. Schön, D. A. (1991) The Reflective Turn: Case Studies In and On Educational Practice, New York: Teachers Press, Columbia University.
Reflective learning theory views the process of acquisition of new information from an experiential base. Adult learners bring with them life experiences when they come to the learning process. “People have concrete experience; they reflect on them and construct new knowledge as a result of these reflections. In this view, the focus is on the learner’s meaning-making processes as the result of an experience” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p.l60). As a theorist, Schon (1983) posit adult learners have knowledge they are not even aware of, a process significantly impacting their decisions and actions. “In much of the spontaneous behavior of skillful practice we reveal a kind of knowing which does not stem from a prior intellectual operation” ( p. 51); a process he later terms “tacit knowledge”. As a nurse educator teaching new practitioners, this is a significant statement. How can I teach students to pay attention to their “tacit knowledge” (Kinsella, 2007) or information they do not even know they possess? How do you teach someone to trust their “gut” instinct in decision-making situations where patient symptoms are vague and undefined, yet we “know” something is wrong and immediate action is required? How do you instill the confidence in a new practitioner to act without implicit instructions or an understanding of why these actions are required? Schon suggests in his theory of reflective learning it is by examining our actions learning occurs. “Reflection tends to focus interactively on the outcomes of the action, the action itself, and the intuitive knowing implicit in the action” (Schon, 1983, p.56). This suggests benefit in closely examining all actions, even those performed without implicit prior knowledge or intent. For the professional practitioner, reflective learning theory provides a framework for closely examining decisions made and actions performed to determine if they made sense, or if a different decision would have provided a better outcome. Reflection allows the practitioner to begin to make sense of their world, of decisions made and requires examination of resulting practice actions.
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), 14. Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A comprehensive guide (Third ed.). San Franciso, Ca: Jossey-Bass. Schon, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner. New Yorki: Basic Books.
Do you think reflection happens naturally for some people and has to be learned in others? Do you have an idea how "outsiders" like teachers can identify that reflection has taken place or do you think that outsiders may not be able to pinpoint all reflective learning in students. Was there any advice in your readings on how to best teach or facilitate reflective learning?
Do any of you know what the differences are in reflective learning and critical thinking? I'd like to get a clear explanation since most of what I'm reading about reflective theory sounds like paraphrasing of of what I've come to understand as the process of critical thinking.
The reflective learning theory provided me with a new paradigm on teaching and learning. I was taught to think from the objectivist view point. Kinsella (2007) state, the objectivist view is based on the theory that:
“The facts are what they are, and the truth of beliefs is strictly testable by reference to them. Professional competence is seen as technical experience, in which skilled professionals have accurate models of their objects and powerful techniques for manipulating them to achieve professional sanctioned ends.” (p. 282)
I use the theories, guidelines, and standards developed by my discipline and professional associations to prepare my assignments and perform tasks at work. Colleges, universities, professional associations, and accreditation boards developed technical knowledge or what Schon’s called “propositional/textbook knowledge”. Because it is accepted by my peers as the standards we use to be successful in school and at work, I believed technical knowledge was the validated way to do things.
The reflective practice theories have provided me with the “liberating education” that Stephen Brookfield describes in his book, Developing Critical Thinkers, Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. Brookfield (1987) states, “liberating education focuses on creativity, student self-direction, and openness to a diversity of interpretations of any particular topic, area of knowledge or theory” (p. 80).
The philosophy of reflective practice supports critical thinking, student self-direction, creativity, and openness to the diversity of interpretations. Schon describes reflective practices as non-rational, intuitive knowledge or knowing-in-action, which is a tacit, dynamic process that involves individuals engaged in spontaneous behavior of skillful practice, such as reflection-on-action, reflection-in-action, and theories-in-use, that will reveal a kind of knowing which does not stem from a prior intellectual operation nor propositional/textbook knowledge (Brockbank, 2007, p. 89).
Kinsella (2006) states that Schon’s believed:
“Knowing-in-action is revealed when a situation occurs that is disorienting for the practitioner and falls outside of the technical knowledge learned in school. The practitioner begins the process of remaking the practice world, trying to find a way of framing the world that is coherent and makes sense.” (p. 284)
As an educator and student, the reflective practice theory will be very useful to me because it will provide me with a new approach to problem solving. Reflective practice will help me to use disorienting experiences as a learning tool. I can examine my values and beliefs, collaborate with my colleagues, and be more aware of the non-rational, intuitive knowledge that I can use to find solutions to problems.
References
Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing Critical Thinkers, Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. San Francisco: Jossey-Boss
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), pp. 395–409.
Kinsella, E. A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), pp. 277–286.
Brockbank, A. (2007). Facilitating Reflective Leaning in Higher Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Reflective learning is based on the framework of engaging in problems and learning from the experience. According to Peltier, Hay and Drago (2005) reflection is seen as a learning tool and action process that is a crucial prerequisite to effective decision making. Donald Schon is known for his work with reflective learning. Schon emphasizes that learning in the process of experience takes place through reflecting the process of experience, and that this often happens at an intuitive, tacit level (Tennant & Pogson, 1995). Reflective learning is not merely being observant. It focuses on observing, being and listening. According to Hedberg (2009), reflective learning means wondering, probing, analyzing, synthesizing and connecting to the learning experience. It translates experience into learning. Reflective learning is very important for the first year college student. According to Peltier et al (2005) learning is related to personal experience and other knowledge. Reflection also involves challenging assumptions, seeking alternatives, and identifying areas of improvement. With First Year Experience programs, students are engaged in learning processes that are synonymous with reflective learning. They are exposed to experiences that provoke critical thinking and become aware of why they think, perceive and act as they do. The First Year Experience program is designed to bring about a change in their personal beliefs about college success. This is done through thought provoking experiences that incorporate reflective learning for students. Hedberg, P.R. (2009). Learning through reflective classroom practice: Applications to educate the reflective manager. Journal of Management Education, 33,(1), 10-36. Peltier, J.W., Hay, A., & Drago, W. (2005). The reflective learning continuum: Reflecting on reflection. Journal of Marketing Education 27(3), 250-272. Tennant, M. & Pogson, P. (1995). Learning and change in the adult years. San Francisco, CA: Josey Bass Publishing.
“Reflection-in-action is when you are thinking on your feet, dealing with situations as they are happening. Reflection-on-action is after the situation has happened you think about what happened and what you did well as well as what you could have done better.”
In reading your posting, in particular the above sentences, I can easily see how this theory could be utilized to explain everyday work related tasks. However, how can this theory be incorporated in the classroom instruction? What methods or techniques can be utilized to reinforce the basic concept that learning is based on reflection?
Reflective Learning The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it encompasses deals with reality whereas it promotes learning based on actions that students take as a result of real-world experiences. Donald Schon (1983) unveiling of his theory of reflective learning has sparked widespread interest from higher education practitioners (Kinsella, 2006). Key elements of Schon’s framework for adult learning: Reflection-in-action (the ability to think on ones feet and respond in real-time) and reflection-on-action (the ability to determine what was done right/wrong/can be done better after a situation has occurred) (Bourner, 2003; Schon, 1987). Schon also argued that the reflective learning process involves taking the time to properly reflect without rushing, being open to a new way of doing things, and allowing an open learning format across the learning spectrum (Schon, 1987).
To this end, I have witnessed reflective learning span cultural, religious, and socio-economic boundaries. For example, I served most of my adult life in the military – living in foreign countries and living stateside. Spending time with people from diverse cultures has revealed that everyone reflects on their lives in a way that: 1) makes them ask themselves how they could have done a better job 2) makes them question whether or not they could have handled an experience more efficiently or effectively and 3) allows for “kudos”, “atta boys”, and self-encouragement, when situations are handled the right way/in a way that produces positive results.
Reflective Learning and its Role in the 21st Century
The role of a well-educated society continues to be a frequently researched topic in the 21st century. Notably, this research has revealed that educational attainment has the power to bolster economic development and politically mobilize nations the world over (National Center on Education and the Economy (NCEE), 2006). When the 21st century ushered in with a big bang, almost instantaneously, the universe was thrust into the throes of a technological revolution – a place in time that is more flexible, creative, and complex than ever.
In the 21st century, we now operate in a world that is increasingly diverse, globalized, and to some extent, media frenzied. Emerging issues including global warming, poverty, hunger, genocide, AIDS, and the global population explosion have taken center stage (Gillespie, 2005; Spencer, 2008). As these issues emerge, so have new technologies, including the worldwide web, internet, and cellular networks. These new technologies offer unlimited possibilities; possibilities that include developing new energy sources, solving medical mysteries, restoring environmentally damaged properties, and exploring uncharted territories in space – fueling the need for lifelong learning and individuals that have the ability to think critically and learn reflectively (Bourner, 2003).
The convergence of critical thinking and reflective learning (thinking)
Brookfield (1987) noted “learning to think critically is one of the most significant activities of adult life…we [critical thinkers] become skeptical of quick-fix solutions and ideas are generated…we [critical thinkers] also become open to alternative ways of looking at, and behaving in the world…(ix). Critical thinking and reflective thinking have two common elements: 1) bringing about a sense of awareness on a conscious level and 2) seeking answers to unresolved issues and problems (e.g. Bourner, 2003). Schon (1987) best summed up the merits of reflective learning when he argued that it presents a unique opportunity to spark change (as cited in Kinsella, 2006, p. 399). Mezirow (1990) made a profound statement in regards to the substance of reflective learning: “…perhaps even more central to adult learning than elaborating established meaning schemes is the process of reflecting back on prior learning to determine whether what we have learned is justified under present circumstances. This is a crucial learning process egregiously ignored by learning theorists” (p. 5). To this end, the utility of reflective learning in addressing the volatility of an ever-changing society warrants consideration.
References
Bourner, T. (2003). Assessing reflective learning. Education + Training, 45(5), 267-272. Retrieved March 31, 2009, from http://www.brighton.ac.uk/cupp/pdf%20files/assessment2.pdf
Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. Danvers, MA: Jossey-Bass.
Gillespie, S. (2005). Aids, poverty and hunger: An overview. Retrieved September 9, 2008, from http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/books/oc50/oc50.pdf
Kinsella, E. (2006, August). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286. Retrieved February 1, 2009, doi:10.1080/14623940600837319
Mezirow, J. & Associates. (1990) Fostering critical reflection in adulthood San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
National Center on Education and the Economy. (2006). The report of the new commission on the skills of the American workforce: tough choices, times. Retrieved March 31, 2009, from http://www.skillscommission.org/pdf/exec_sum/ToughChoices_ EXECSUM.pdf
Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
Spencer, C. (2008, September 13). Global issues of the twenty-first century and united nations challenges: A guide to facts and views on major or future trends. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from http://www.global-challenges.org/
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because reflective practice, or reflection, is considered such a vital component of the learning process (Schon, 1987). It is the process of internally examining and explaining an issue of concern, triggered by experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and results in a changed conceptual perspective. Anytime there is such a great emaphasis on the processing on the information, there is more learning involved. Reflective learning is a very good way for you to take knowledge that you already know and connect it to the new information (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgardner, 2007). Another reason that reflective learning best describes it considers one's own experiences in applying knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schon, 1996). I believe that one cannot truly learn anything unless that person indulges themselves into the learning process. When the learner does this, it creates an enviroment where the learner is more able to understand the information.
Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
Schon, D. A. (1996). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S.
The Reflective theory best explains why adults learn, because it is a process of reflecting on prior experiences and relating them to new knowledge (Kinsella, 2006). An adult learner has a greater bank of information in which to draw from this knowledge and relate to current learning efforts. Younger children have a smaller bank of prior knowledge but are taught the skill of reflection at a young age. Several educators including myself use KWL (What I know? What I want to know? and What I learned?) charts for reflection. By allowing children to learn the process at a young age they will be better able to apply this practice as an adult. Further analysis of the reflective theory shows the connection between reflection a cognitive skill and critical thinking a metacognative skill (Kuiper and Pesut, 2004). Critical thinking skills are skills that we wish for all of our students. As adult learner educators using reflective journals/data logs will help establish reflective practice in students. Reflective theory uses critical thinking as a basis hower all of the learning theories interact with each other to make the learner a well rounded student.
References
Kuiper, R.A. & Pesut, D.J. (2004). Promoting cognitive and metacognitive reflective reasoning skills in nursing practice: self-regulated learning theory. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 45(4), 381-391.
Kinsella, E.A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schon's theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286.
Reflective learning is a very good way for you to start with existing knowledge and connect it to the new information (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgardner, 2007). This explanation of adult learning is clearly different from how a child learns. A child learns mainly by engagement “….in non reflective learning, such as remembering an experience, repeating an experience, or doing what they are told. (Merriam et al., 2007).
What I do not see in your definitions of reflective learning is how emotion, reasoning, and community play into this theory.
“Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school”. ~Albert Einstein
Many have defined learning in many different ways. In my opinion, learning must include reflection as an integral part of the whole learning process. Some definitions merely define learning as a mechanical system of memorization and regurgitation of facts. But quiet the contrary, especially if you are considering how deeper learning takes place. Let’s first consider the definitions of the two words “learning” and “reflection”, as defined from a grammatical stand point and then move toward considering learning to include reflection from a broader view of how this type of learning process relates to the adult learner.
Brockbank and McGill (2007) define the word “learning” from a grammatical standpoint as both a noun and a verb. Brockbank and McGill write that the word “learning” as a noun means, a product, ‘knowledge, skills, attitudes or values acquired through study, experience or being taught. However, the word “learning” as a verb means, the process of acquiring knowledge, skill etc.; becoming aware of something, or memorizing something. Reflection as a noun is defined as a fixing of the thoughts on something; careful thought especially the process of reconsidering previous actions, events, or decisions and can be considered the act of serious thought. Learning without reflection – can one exist without the other?
Broader definitions reveal a wide variety of approaches about the concept of learning. For example, Ramsden (1993) states that learning should be seen in a qualitative change in a person’s way of seeing, experiencing, understanding, conceptualizing something in the real world. From Ramsden’s viewpoint, the learning process goes far beyond what is indicated by Brockbank and McGill’s grammatical definitions of the two words. Reflective learning takes place when a person’s behavior or way of thinking changes because of what is learned. In order for this to happen reflection must be a part of the learning process. In Ramsden’s definition you can infer that a person must take time to reflect and observe the new experience to develop a new concept of thinking and then experiment with it to determine if it is relevant and applicable to one’s own world.
Biggs (1999) defines learning and reflection as the process of interacting with the world. He says that we learn our conceptions of phenomena change and we see the world differently. He goes on to say that the acquisition of new information in itself does not bring about such change, but the way we structure that information and think does. He concludes that education is about conceptual change, not just the acquisition of information. Again, Briggs, as Ramsden, suggests that the learning process must include time to reflect and dig deeper about the concepts being presented.
Many investigators have emphasized the importance of reflecting on what you are doing, as part of the learning process. Donald Schon (1983) suggested that the capacity to reflect on action so as to engage in a process of continuous learning was one of the defining characteristics of professional practice. To me this suggests that the act of reflecting can help a person to better understand ones strengths and weaknesses, identify and question your underlying values and beliefs, acknowledge and challenge possible assumptions on which you base your ideas, feelings and actions, recognized areas of potential bias, acknowledged fears, and identified possible inadequacies or areas for improvement.
What is the role of reflection in the teaching and learning process? Reflection can lead to greater self-awareness, which in turn is a first step to positive change. Taking time to reflect can help a person identify approaches that have worked well, and in that way reinforce good practice. It can also help you to discard approaches that haven’t worked well, too. That is one of the reasons that reflection is so important in the teaching and learning process. It is a level of deeper thinking that goes beyond the surface. “Reflecting is indicative of deep learning, and where teaching and learning activities such as reflection are missing…only surface learning can result”. (Biggs, 1987)
Reflection can lead to a person’s personal and professional growth and cause meaningful lifetime change. Reflective activities given to students help them to learn through reflection, because a link is established between reflection and deeper learning. The intention is to produce students to acquire a habit of reflection as a means of continuing to learn and grow.
I’ve found that a major obstacle to learning through reflection is the amount of time that is needed to explore the experience in depth. A lack of time frequently limits opportunities for learning, which will not lead to meaningful insights or positive change. The person must have ample time to reflect by describing the context of the incident in detail and explaining why the incident is critical and significant to oneself. Time must be allocated for explanation of any concerns or thoughts at the time and then additional time allowed to describe feelings about what is taking place. So you can see that there are implications of reflective learning during the teaching and learning process but in my opinion, the benefit of allowing time to reflect out weighs the implications.
The major issue to the practioner is that you are limited to a very short class schedule and there is not enough time to allow each student reflecting time. Or if you have a class that is too large, its size would not allow interaction and reflection time ample for exploration and interaction. However one must find ways to allow reflection in order for critical thinking and reflecting to occur during the learning process.
In conclusion, based on varying definitions of learning and reflection, it is determined that for deeper understanding and learning to happen, reflection must be an integral part of the learning process. Can one exist without the other – no if deep learning is to occur. Deep learning is the result of a more critical thinking process of reflection, which causes the thinker to change his behavior or views, especially if it is determined relevant to ones own way of life.
References:
Atherton, J. S., (2005). Learning and Teaching: Reflection and Reflective Practice [On-line)UK: Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/reflecti.htm Accessed: 30 March 2009
Biggs, J., (1987). Student Approaches to Learning and Studying Hawthorn, Vic: Australian Council for Educational Research
Brockbank, A. and McGill, I., (2007). Facilitating reflective learning in higher education, Society for Research into Higher Education. McGraw- Hill International.
Ramsden, P., (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education London: Routledge.
Schon, D. A., (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in act:ion London: Temple Smith: Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/reference.htm#SCHON Accessed: 31 March 2009
The Reflective Learning Theory best explains why adults learn because when we engage in reflective learning we "plan, monitor, and reflect upon our experiences. (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) Reflective learning requires that we learn from our experiences. Experience is the best teacher. Right? Reflective learning has the advantage of focusing on activity rather than claiming a state of being, and learning is always likely to be a state of 'becoming' rather than static. (Brockbank, McGill, & Beech, 2002) Learning is an ongoing process, when we reflect upon our prior experiences it allows us to better understand what we did or did not learn from those experiences. Rather than seeking to achieve a solid state of being, reflective learning is active-a continuous process of 'becoming' in changing circumstances. (Brockbank, McGill, & Beech, 2002) Reflective learning is active, not passive. We cannot reflect for others, only for ourselves.
Brockbank, A., McGill, I., & Beech, N. (2002). Reflective Learning In Practice. Gower Publishing, Ltd.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it provides the foundation for learning by allowing learners to constantly reflect on the material covered during a class session. Adult learners are required to devote time outside of class to reading, studying and reviewing concepts. Bladen Community College uses the rule of thumb that a student should commit to spending at least one hour to studying per every one hour spent in class.
Reflecting learning allows an individual to meditate on a concept’s original intent. This will allow ample time for the individual to develop their own theory based on the original idea of the concept. Constantly reviewing a subject matter enables an individual to better comprehend its objective.
We have, in often times, been referred to as creatures of habit. We learn behavioral patterns based on the patterns that are displayed in our social environment that we have deemed acceptable and appropriate. During adolescence and elementary educational stages we learn a large amount of material based on constant review and repetition. As adult learners, reflection plays an equally essential role.
Reflective learning can take place in a series of ways. For instance reflective learning can be implemented by assigning students to complete a group assignment based on a previous class lecture. Learners may also opt to utilize note cards to review material at their convenience. Reflective learning provides learners with the opportunity to excel academically by reviewing course related material. Reflective learning can also be implemented in employment training programs, liberal arts, and performing arts.
Reflective Theory best explains why adults learn because it allows individuals to make judgments based on experiences and prior knowledge. It is practice knowledge based. It allows us to use data from our past and the present experiences. It allows for a higher–level of thinking process. It is used by practitioners to examine beliefs, goals, and practices to help them improve learning for their students (Merriam, 2007).
There are several elements of reflective practice. Reflective practice requires slowing down to consider multiple views. One should always keep an open mind. Reflective practice requires active process of thinking about thinking. That would include analysis, synthesis, and metacognition in order to achieve a broader content for understanding (Merriam, 2007).
Finally, beliefs, goals, and practices must be considered. Beliefs are formed by our experiences and influence our behavior, while goals are our desired outcome (Merriam, 2007).
In our text by Merriam, Welling and Austin stated that reflective thinking could be filtered though the practitioner’s belief and value systems of practice which results in five orientations toward reflective practice: the immediate, the technical, the deliberative, the dialectic, and the transpersonal. Their views of reflective practice were a different way of looking at the reflective practice theory. They felt that the practitioners should realize their own orientation as well as to respect the orientation of others (Merriam, 2007).
There are two basic process that have been identified in the reflective practice: reflective –on-action and reflective –inaction. Reflection-on-action involves evaluation of the action after it has all ready happened. In our reevaluation of the action, we decide what we would have done differently, and then we try it out. In our text by Merriam, Kolb’s allows for a process of continued change and growth. Merriam text stated that Keogh, and Walker added to Kolb model by stating that we must first attend to our own feelings created by our experiences in order for the reflective process to be effective. They also added more descriptions of the four cognitive processes (integration, validation and appropriation) that may contribute to the process (Merriam, 2007).
Merriam text stated that Osterman and Kottkamp set reflection practice into a framework. They viewed reflective practice cycle as one of helping the practitioner become aware of and act on, their findings between their beliefs and what they actual did do. In this process, individuals contrast the two to find out their own theories-in-use (Merriam, 2007).
Reflection-in-action is defined as “what we are doing while we are doing it” (Schon, 1987,p.26). According to him it is triggered by surprise. It is when what we are thinking and doing no longer works and we must do something else on the spot to achieve our goal. It is thinking on our feet to solve a situation. He felt that this practice went beyond stable rules by developing new methods of reasoning and helped to find new ways to respond to problems (Merriam, 2007).
Both of these processes, reflective –on-action and reflective –in-action, are used by educators who are reflective in their practice to build on their expertise (Merriam, 2007).
References
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass
Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
I agree to what you have said about reflective thinking because it does offer the learner an opportunity to think about a situation.
Experience has to happen before the reflection can begin. It is in my own personal experience that reflection is more adamant when I am involved in something new and have never experienced it before. The analysis of the experience helps decifer what I have learned. Do you reflect in this manner?
I agree wtih your post explaining reflective learning of educators. It is important for an educator to reflect on a lesson plan taught because it will help him or her understand how effective it was. He or she can decifer what may have worked and what may have not worked for enhancement or improvement.
The educator should also incorporate into his or her lesson plan a time for the student to reflect upon their learning to enhance their cognitive abilities.
When I first incorporated reflection into my lesson plan, the students felt uneasy about the exercise. After performing two to three reflections, they were not hesitant and looked forward to reflecting.
One term where I focus is: collaboration. That’s the sharing of experiences in a group environment. The art of working together and sharing information is truly an aspect of the Reflective Learning Theory. In the adult learning environment, I believe it’s essential to engage and learn from the students. This strategy creates a two-way dialogue and allows a variety of positions and perspectives via an active (two-way) discussion. Discussion and involvement lead to further, in-depth participation which generates trust within the classroom environment. Adult learning depends on the newness of “what works” within the business environment. New ideas and concepts are openly visited when a group, as a group, is interested. As stated, straight talk is “say what you mean, mean what you say” (Covey, 2008). In an adult learning environment this is difficult, but when achieved it can be most beneficial and rewarding.
References:
Covey, S (2008), The Speed of Trust, The One Thing That Changes Everything, with Rebecca R. Merrill
Thanks for your postings on Reflective learning. Part of Experiential learning also relies on reflection as part of the learning experience.
In healthcare we use reflection as an performance and evluation tool on a regular basis. I gave a couple of examples in my post ont he experiential learning blog, but another example has to do with learning a new skill, particularly a technical skill.
We often teach risky, technical skills in simulation so we have an opportunity to evaluate the pratitioners performance before they care for actual patients. A good example is ACLS or Advanced Cardiac Life Support. This is a skill that involves critical thinking and decision making, technical skills, and communication skills. People who need ACLS have suffered a cardiac arrest and require resuscitation. Practicing the resuscitation skills in the classrooms setting allows the instructors to coach the practitioners and allows the practitioners to make their mistakes in simulation rather than on an actual person. We do reflection after each station, pointing out where performace was good and where it can be improved.
Do you think there is a role for non-reflective learning? For instance, the person ordering hte medications in this emergency situation needs to have common resuscitation medication and dosages memorized. We also follow the American Heart Association's algorhythmsfor ACLS. While they are located on the crash cart, no one wants to be flipping through charts while the patient is dying.
Reflective practice allows one to make judgements in complex and murky situations– judgements based on experience and prior knowledge. (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner 2007)
When I think about the experiences that I have experienced so far in life I feel as if I have a lot to share but at the same time still a lot to learn. John Dewey (1938), in his classic volume Experience and Education, made some of the most thoughtful observations about the connections between life experiences and learning. As I relate reflective practice to my field of work I have ten years experience as a financial advisor so when preforming my job it comes easy to do so. As my newer co-workers that are new to the field it is harder for them to adapt to the consist interruptions that the job brings while staying on task. But this makes me think about when I first begin in the field I was so eager to learn more I took the initiative to learn as much as I could on my own and asked many questions to the veterans. I don’t see any initiative in any of them in the work they do. As a result they are consistently chasing their tails trying to get the job done when it’s really not that hard if they would ask more questions. In contrast, reflection-in-action reshapes “what we are doing while we are doing it” (Schon, 1987, p.26). Reflective practice allows you to think on your feet. Wellington and Austin (1996) have depicted a way of thinking about reflective practice that acknowledges how it could be filtered through the belief and value systems of practitioners, which in their view results in five orientations toward reflective practice: the immediate, the technical, the deliberative, the dialectic and the transpersonal.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R.S., Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Schon, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.
Wellington, B., & Austin, P. (1996). Orientations to reflective practice. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 307-316.
Reflections can make an adult think about what they have already learned and helps to make sense of that learning but what actually causes the learned knowledge? The process begins with experiences and feeling and then ends with reflection. I believe that in order to learn one must be able to be in a situation that gets their feelings involved and then they form a notion of the way they are suppose to look at the situation. Once they have had the experience and learned what to do then reflection comes into play and forces them to form new insight about the situation. As quoted by Taylor (2000a) in Baumgartner (2007): notes of Mezirow’s theory that “critical reflection is granted too much importance and does not give enough attention to the significance of affective learning- the role of emotions and feelings in the process of transformation” (p.151)
Baumgartner, L., Caffarella, R., & Merriam, S., (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sandra I enjoyed your post on Reflective Learning. What particularly caught my eye was how much it personally impacted you over the cultural, religious and social-economic boundaries. What are some good examples you can provide that had that profound effect on your experience.
Hi Joyce Do you feel that the reflective learning theory is preparing the student for the real "world"? My feeling about the reflective theory is that it will help our students to think out-of-the-box in making their decisions. Not causing problems, but giving other options in completing their work in a more successful way.
Since reflection alone does not bring about learning, but in fact you need time and change, do you think that Transformative Learning might be a more inclusive theory on learning?
Since reflection alone does not bring about learning, but in fact you need time and change, do you think that Transformative Learning might be a more inclusive theory on learning?
I liked your post about Reflective Learning. I think you provided a good description of the difference between Reflection-in-Action and Reflection-on-Action.
I noticed that you have several primary sources in your reference list, yet there are no in-text citations. That would make it very difficult to reference those sources. You might want to consider adding them.
Generally speaking, I agree with your comment that we all already do this. Even so, I tend to agree with Schon that we might want to slow down sometimes to deliberately reflect on actions and deliberately try to learn from them.
When I think about reflection I see it as a tool to improve self. For instance, there have been times when my students have frustrated me(really?) Rather than examine the lesson, or how well I presented it, I have journaled to get to the heart of why I felt frustrated.
The reflective learning theory best elucidates why adults learn because it cultivates, builds upon, and reshapes past experiences rather than replicating them. The learning theorist Peter Jarvis explains that, “ironically, often the more experiences we have, the less likely we are to learn from them,” (Merrian, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Therefore, nonreflective learning, the repetition of previous experiences, does not encourage learning. On the other hand, reflective learning will encourage new learning experiences through the evaluation of previous experiences. Those experiences will be used as groundwork to build on learning. “Critical reflection can challenge embedded assumptions, beliefs, and values, (Hedberg, 2009). The evaluative stage of reflective learning has similar traits as transformative learning. According to Jack Mezirow, transformative learning is “the process by which we transform our taken-for-granted frames of reference (meaning schemes, habits of mind, mindsets) to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide action,” (Merrian, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Therefore, reflective learning manifests the progressive results experiences that encourages intellectual growth.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guild (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Hedberg, Patricia Raber. (2009) Learning through Reflective Classroom Practice: Applications to Educate the Reflective Manager. The Journal of Management Education, v33 n1 p10-36.
The reflective learning theory best elucidates why adults learn because it cultivates, builds upon, and reshapes past experiences rather than replicating them. The learning theorist Peter Jarvis explains that, “ironically, often the more experiences we have, the less likely we are to learn from them,” (Merrian, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Therefore, nonreflective learning, the repetition of previous experiences, does not encourage learning. On the other hand, reflective learning will encourage new learning experiences through the evaluation of previous experiences. Those experiences will be used as groundwork to build on learning. “Critical reflection can challenge embedded assumptions, beliefs, and values, (Hedberg, 2009). The evaluative stage of reflective learning has similar traits as transformative learning. According to Jack Mezirow, transformative learning is “the process by which we transform our taken-for-granted frames of reference (meaning schemes, habits of mind, mindsets) to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide action,” (Merrian, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Therefore, reflective learning manifests the progressive results experiences that encourages intellectual growth.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guild (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Hedberg, Patricia Raber. (2009) Learning through Reflective Classroom Practice: Applications to Educate the Reflective Manager. The Journal of Management Education, v33 n1 p10-36.
I was wondering what would happen if students were to no grasp the original concept that the teacher was trying to teach and then work on thier own in reflection about that concept. Would they not be learning the wrong thing? If they did group work and the group overall did not understand the concept would this reflective component be furthering that learning. How does one make sure that the learning is correct before the reflective part takes place.
Hi Debra, I enjoyed you post very much and have to agree with the lack of time usually given to reflection. There is time needed to be sure that the person has a true grasp on the incident or learning situation that they have experienced and I believe there needs to be time given for understanding of the content of that experience and as you mentioned what it meant to the learner. Because all students learn at different rates I imagine that they would also reflect in different ways as well. Your comments on the limits of class schedules making this process difficult were quite correct. Do you have any suggestions how this can be addressed in the classroom?
(Please respond to Lisa@Walden and not sam i am... did not want to set up another gmail account)
"The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because….”. “Clearly people learn from experience” (p. 163). The reflective learning theory involves “thinking about and monitoring one’s practice as it is happening” (p. 164). Additionally, the “reflective practice allows one to make judgments in complex an murky situations…” (p.164).
As I think about the reflective practice, it leads to the path of critical thinkers and how critical thinkers process information and deal with situations. “Critical thinkers are actively engaged with life… they see the future as open malleable, not closed or fixed” (Brookfield 1987, p. 5) I conclude that there many similarities between the reflective practice and being a critical thinker. Thus, if I had to explain what reflective thinking was to a layperson I would define the reflective learning theory as such: The reflective learning theory is a theory that is based on experience and requires one to have an open mind and think clearly about past, present, or future actions and the consequences that accompany said actions prior to or while partaking in said action, if possible.
That being said there are two critical components that relate to the reflective learning theory: a) reflection-on-action which involves thinking through a situation after it has happened (Merriam et al. 2007, p. 174), and, b) reflection-in-action in contrast, reshapes “what we are doing while we are doing it… “thinking on your feet” or “keeping your wits about you” are commonly used phrases to describe this notion. (p. 176)
In closing Merriam et al. shares, “educators who were reflective in their practice used both reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action to build their expertise” (p. 177).
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing Critical Thinkers, Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. San Francisco: Jossey-Boss.
My defense of the Reflective Learning Theory is based on what I see as its alternative, “unreflective learning” (if it is even possible to do such a thing!)
Schön in The Reflective Practitioner (1983) argues for a kind of reflective practice in action that is cyclical in nature beginning with the “situation as it is”, then bringing personal experience and questioning of the actual practice into the equation with the goal of impacting actual performance.
The alternative to this in his opinion is giving up to “academic professionals” to both identify and solve “the problem” with a technocratic and detached methodology. By engaging in reflective practice (learning) an individual or group (with a vested interest in the outcome) creates the option of bringing current practices into question.
Much of my work over the past 25 years has been as an organizational consultant. I have found that getting individuals (and especially the decision makers) in organizations to engage in reflective learning absolutely necessary (and extremely difficult) in both identifying “the problems or messes” and the components necessary for change-solutions.
I am in total agreement with John P. Kotter (1996) of Harvard Business School when he states,
Major change will not happen easily because of inwardly focused cultures, paralyzing bureaucracy, parochial politics, a low level of trust, lack of teamwork, arrogant attitudes, a lack of leadership in middle management, and the general human fear of the unknown. (p. 20)
Any of the above (and surely the weight of it all) makes it difficult to convince “decision makers” in organizations to engage in reflective learning.
I have found in practice that once such fears as “losing positional authority”, having personal limitations “exposed”, etc. have been addressed (Leadership and Self-Deception, p.131) so that the goal of organizational success can be achieved (after all when the organization “wins” then all in the organization win.) then it is easier to convince decision makers to lead their organization into very productive “reflective learning”. The opposite is also true and all too often I have witnessed individuals willing to sacrifice the long term good of an organization in order to maintain a personal profile of power and control.
Therefore, I am an active proponent of reflective learning.
The Arbinger Institute, (2002), Leadership and Self-Deception, San Francisco: Berrett- Koehler Publishers, Inc.
Kotter, John P. (1996), Leading Change, Boston: Harvard Business School Press
Schön, D.A., (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Eventhough reflecting on the process that the person when through is esential, if it was not for the Experiential Learning Theory the individual would not realize what they have done. The experience the person recived from the task weights heavily and creates a skills to expand. I beleive experiencial learning is what drives the process of reflective learning.
Reflective learning is considered a dominant learning theory in adult education, consisting of journaling, self-directed question-and-answer modalities, as well as comprehensive overview of ongoing learning achievements (Warhurst, 2008). This type of learning is particularly effective for the adult learner because it brings to bear experiences and previous education that is valuable to the process of assimilating new knowledge. By reflecting on what one already knows compared to what one is being asked to learn, the mind can contextualize unfamiliar information, decreasing the learning curve and increasing the applicability of the new material (Cook, Gelula, Dupras, & Schwartz, 2007).
Reflective learning views learning as an introspective process in which the learner is responsible for developing his own determinants for the quality and quantity of information that is internalized. This allows the learner to cognitively ingest what is useful and disavow what is not (Lowe, Rappolt, Jaglal, & MacDonald, 2007). Reflective learning theory, then, upholds and validates the autonomy of the learner, allowing him to commandeer the learning process and individualize it in precisely the way he sees fit. It can be said that reflective learning is andragogy at its finest (Cook et al, 2007). In what other way can one so succinctly map a path for educational success through the wilds of the higher education arena?
References:
Cook, D. A., Gelula, M. H., Dupras, D. M., & Schwartz, A. (2007). Instructional methods and cognitive and learning styles in web-based learning: Report of two randomized trials. Medical Education, 41(9), 897-905. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database.
Lowe, M., Rappolt, S., Jaglal, S., & MacDonald, G. (2007). The role of reflection in implementing learning from continuing education into practice. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 27(3), 143-148. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.
Warhurst, R. (2008). Reflections on reflective learning in professional formation. Studies in the Education of Adults, 40(2), 176-191. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database.
Do you find that reflective learning theory is similar to experiential learning theory? I really enjoyed reading your military example. It seems that students learn better once they have had the opportunity to see how the learning applies to their lives.
Hello Tanisha, I would like to think that experience is our best teacher; because when we reflect upon our experiences we are not going to repeat our bad experiences, are we? We are going to repeat all that is learned well and that, which are positive experiences. Lorenza
Response to Nedra Allen: You asked a great follow-up question to my post: "Do you find that reflective learning theory is similar to experiential learning theory." Reflective learning is very much tied to experiential learning because they are both "active" whereas the learner plays an instrumental role in the learning process. Much of the conclusions drawn from these experiences depends on the interpretation of the learner.
I have some really good examples of how reflective learning has played an integral part of my life, particularly when I reflect on my military career and how I have applied what was learned to navigating the waters in the civilian world. Rule number: Embrace diversity and be open to learning about new cultures because your quality of life and relationships with others may well depend on it. For example, I have a friendship circle that spans worldwide and as a result a "network" that has kept me abreast of the political, social, and economic landscape on a global scale. Because I am "informed", I am armed with the tools to converse with people at all levels of organizations. This is important because I have an agenda - my agenda is to address pressing community issues and support students as they prepare to transition from high school to college.
"The Reflective Learning theory best explains why adults learn because of the way adults have been taught to learn by their working environment. As adults we take training classes that teach us to follow a process rather than understanding why we are doing a task we merely understand the task we need to do triggered by the task we just completed, reflective learning. By completing the same set of tasks over and over again we learn the process and not necessarily the task. We prove this theory every time we try to alter that learned process at a fast food restaurant. The server needs to follow the script they have been taught in order to complete the customer request. Jarvis states “we tend to choose what is familiar and deny ourselves new learning” (Jarvis, 2001). This is most evident with adult learners. They tend to be less opportunistic and just want to understand the minimum of the work necessary to succeed. What is most concerning about this trend is that the companies supplying the training only want to supply the minimum (usually under contract to a sponsoring company) and therefore do nothing to alter the methodology. At the conclusion of the training there is always an assessment exercise that the student are required to complete but the assessments really focus on the content and the instructor. The methodology is rarely questioned.
Jarvis, P. (2001). Learning in later life: An introduction for educators and careers. In P. Jarvis, Learning in later life: An introduction for educators and careers. London: Kogan Page.
What is your specific experience with company training? I have found that it's not always necessary for employees and participants to understand the methodolgy of training. The goal of the training to is learning something new. If that is accomplished it doesn't make sense for the company to waste time of explaining methods.
Hi Janelle, I agree with you when involving students in the learning process. I believe in the effectiveness of the Reflective Learning Theory especially when it allows educators to evaluate their own methods of teaching. As De la Harpe (1999) states that reflection “includes the ability to be self-aware, to analyze experiences, to evaluate their meaning and to plan further action based on the analyses and reflection”. Reflective learning is important because it extracts meaning from the experience. Do you think that there are techniques that have to be taught or are they accomplished by individuals spontaneously, and why? Thank you.
De la Harpe, B. & Radloff, A. (1999). Helping future teachers to be effective learners: providing in-context learning support for first year Teacher Education students. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 24(2)
The Reflective Learning theory best explains why adults learn because of the way adults have been taught to learn by their working environment. As adults we take training classes that teach us to follow a process rather than understanding why we are doing a task we merely understand the task we need to do triggered by the task we just completed, reflective learning. By completing the same set of tasks over and over again we learn the process and not necessarily the task. We prove this theory every time we try to alter that learned process at a fast food restaurant. The server needs to follow the script they have been taught in order to complete the customer request. Jarvis states “we tend to choose what is familiar and deny ourselves new learning” (Jarvis, 2001). This is most evident with adult learners. They tend to be less opportunistic and just want to understand the minimum of the work necessary to succeed. What is most concerning about this trend is that the companies supplying the training only want to supply the minimum (usually under contract to a sponsoring company) and therefore do nothing to alter the methodology. At the conclusion of the training there is always an assessment exercise that the student are required to complete but the assessments really focus on the content and the instructor. The methodology is rarely questioned.
Jarvis, P. (2001). Learning in later life: An introduction for educators and careers. In P. Jarvis, Learning in later life: An introduction for educators and careers. London: Kogan Page.
You asked a question regarding differences between reflective learning and critical thinking. I covered the "convergence of reflective learning and critical thinking" in my April 3rd post (I believe after you posted your question). Take a look. Let me know if this information helps. Have a great day!
Scotty, "...As adults we take training classes that teach us to follow a process rather than understanding why we are doing a task we merely understand the task we need to do triggered by the task we just completed, reflective learning..."
That is so true. And, I believe you've addressed one of the many differences between "Baby Boomers" and following generations (GEN-X, Milleniums, etc.).
You raise some very insightful points in your post, and I agree with most of your points. However, I want to challenge you to look at a couple of your points from a different perspective.
You stated that adults tend to want to understand the minimum of the work necessary to succeed, and companies supplying the training only want to supply the minimum and therefore do nothing to alter the methodology. I believe adult learners actually DO want to learn more than the minimum, but (at least in the corporate world), they are trained by companies only to learn and implement procedures that are related to the job they are performing, and nothing more. The savy adult learner sees this as an opportunity to learn beyond what the company trains them to do (even if it requires veturing outside the company to increase their learning) so that they can become a more valuable asset to the company they work for, or use their new skills to gain employment with a new company. That is what I did when I enrolled in a computer training school several years ago in order to make myself more marketable when I realized the company I worked for at the time had available positions that required certain skills. When I was overlooked for the positions I applied for within that company, I took my newly learned skills to another company...also, I think companies are only interested in spending minimal resources on training for employees because they are only interested in securing their bottom line in regards to profit-less money going out and more money coming in.
Although I agree with you that reflective learning theory is an effective model of learning, I don't believe it to be the dominant adult learning theory. In comparing reflective theory and experiential theory, what would be your reason to favor the reflective theory?
Of the triad of theories, i.e. transformative, experiential, and reflective, it is the reflective theory that influences and shapes the other two. First, however, it is important to briefly establish what reflective practice is and the value it has in learning before demonstrating how it influences and shapes the other two.
Definition and Value of Reflective Learning
According to Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007), reflection “allows one to make judgments in complex…situations…based on…prior knowledge.” (p. 172) Loughran (2002) posits that it is often the occurrence of a problem or perplexing situation that initiates reflective practice. Thus, Merriam, et al. (2007) suggest a four-element approach to problem-solving using reflection: 1) deliberately slow down, 2) maintain an open perspective, 3) actively and consciously process thoughts, and 4) examine beliefs, goals and practices.
Using reflection can have real value, especially from an educational perspective. Loughran (2002) cites such ideas as deeper understanding of teaching, better understanding of what is known not only on the part of the instructor but also on the part of the student, development of knowledge and understanding of both the subject matter as well as the reflective process itself, and the ability to improve professional judgment. He suggests that “reflection is effective when it leads the teacher to make meaning from the situation in ways that enhance understanding.” (Loughran, 2002, p. 36) This is what he calls effective reflection. Despite these and other reflective behaviors, Merriam, et al. (2007) suggests two central practices: reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action. For reflection-on-action there is a reevaluation process that occurs after a situation has taken place in order to determine what could have been done differently. Conversely, reflection-in-action is responding to a situation as it is occurring. Effective reflection includes knowing one’s own personal style, i.e. reflection-on-action versus reflection-in-action. Which are you?
Influence of Reflection on Transformative and Experiential Theories
In order for the transformative process to occur, according to Merriam, et al. (2007) an experience is needed but with that experience critical reflection is necessary, as well as reflective discourse before action can take place. Then it is through the action that transformation can transpire. However, just having an experience will not lead to transformation without a reflective process in between. Therefore, the value comes when reflection is part of an experience in order for a transformation to be undertaken.
Loughran, J. J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), pp. 33-43.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it “refers to a great or deeper degree of processing of material to be learned. Whereas in non-reflective learning, material is simply taken in with little or no active thinking (e.g., memorization) or understanding, reflective learning engages a large amount of the learners thinking or cognitive capacities. Related terms/concepts include: deep level processing, critical thinking, relativistic thinking” (Herod, 2002).
Reflection-in-action teaches adults how to interpret information been given to them in an immediate situation and then assists them with processing it and turning around to use in the same encounter. "The practitioner allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation which he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomenon before him, and on the prior understandings which have been implicit in his behavior. He carries out an experiment which serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomenon and a change in the situation" (Schön, 1983, p.68).
Reflection-on-action teaches the adult to reflect on the earlier encounter. "When a practitioner makes sense of a situation he perceives to be unique, he sees it as something already present in his repertoire. To see this site as that one is not to subsume the first under a familiar category or rule. It is, rather, to see the unfamiliar, unique situation as both similar to and different from the familiar one, without at first being able to say similar or different with respect to what. The familiar situation functions as a precedent, or a metaphor, or... an exemplar for the unfamiliar one" (Schön, 1983, p.138).
References
Herod, L. (2002). Glossary Of Terms. Adult Learning: From Theory to Practice. Retrieved February 2, 2009, from http://www.nald.ca/adultlearningcourse/glossary.htm#r
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because reflective practice, or reflection, is considered such a vital component of the learning process (Schon, 1987)that strategies and supporting tools warrant continued research in the learning sciences (Sawyer, 2006).
In teacher education, reflective practice supports teachers as they move from routine actions in their teaching to more considered, cognitative actions. This transformation makes teachers "better," or aware of their pedagogical practice and beliefs (Vallance, 2006). Teacher education programs incorporate reflective practice as a valued and effective record of teaching practicum (Farrell, 1995a; Murray, 2003)
Reflective learning is the process of internally examining and explaining an issue of concern, triggered by experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and results in a changed conceptual perspective.
Atkins and Murray (1993), Scalon and Chernomas (1997)described a model of reflection used in nursing education which may be applied in various domains:
1. awareness - individual acknowledges lack of information in explaining something
2. critical analysis - need for knowledge and application of new information
3. new perspective - individual has gained insight into understanding the concepts, situation or event.
Baker (1996) suggests that critical thinking skills are fundamental to reflection, other writers indicate that reflection is essential for critical thinking to occur.
Mary@Walden,
You have quite lengthy quotes on reflective learning, so I was wondering how you defend it in terms of your own application. To see the “unique””, the “unfamiliar”, to experience “surprise”, or to “reflect on the phenomenon” must require a lot of prompting to be effective, to achieve the appropriate reflection at any given time. In order to accomplish all of this, the facilitator must prompt questions such as: What worked? What didn’t? What did you do? How does this apply? What happened? How did we…? And so on and on and on. Mezirow (2000) defined three types of reflective learning (as cited in Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 145). Because of the various types of questions and reflections, what type of reflection do you consider most beneficial?
1. One that involves a summary of experience?
2. One that aids in interpreting the experience?
3. One that rests on a qualifying decision?
4. One that emotionally involves the participants feelings?
Taylor (2000) states that “critical reflection is granted too much importance and does not give enough attention to the significance of affective learning…” (as cited in Merriam et al., 2007, p. 151). The reflection process appears to be very time consuming, so how do you defend the time spent on prompting, the “down” time and the “wait” time as students reflect in an appropriate manner? Another time issue involved is monitoring and assessing reflection. How do you monitor and assess individual reflection in this paradigm? With so much “reflection”, how can you spend quality time in responding to say 20 students? 100 students?? Or 800+ students like I have in any given semester?
Reference:
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Chandra,
While I strongly believe in reflection and some type of reflective learning, this is an issue that I struggle with for a couple of reasons. The first reason is the sheer magnanimity of the whole process, especially with over 800 students. Another problem I must deal with is the cultural boundaries of the Chinese. Uba (1994) stated, “Schema engenders general knowledge, beliefs, and expectations” (as cited in Torres, Howard-Hamilton, & Cooper, 2003, p. 62). Students from a collective society are taught not to question the teacher, the methods, the outcome, etc. It is also not within their culture to question themselves, but to assess blame to themselves if the perceived message is not reached—it is their fault. This is not just an issue here in China, but there are many Asians living and working in the U.S. To make these adults question would only result in raising the affective filter and shutting them out of the process. “In order for people to interpret experiences positively and to learn effectively they need to have confidence in their abilities, good self-esteem, support from others, and trust in others” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 165). By forcing this onto learners from a collectivist society you will lower their self-esteem and definitely lose their trust—and you will never know it! So, my questions are:
1. How are cultural boundaries addressed in this paradigm?
2. How will prior schema be activated in order to teach the reflective process to them?
3. What methods could be used to teach this reflection process to these reluctant students?
References:
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Torres, V., Howard-Hamilton, M.F., & Cooper, D.L. (2003). Identity development of diverse populations: Implications for teaching and administration in higher education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Hello All,
This is a reminder to list your FULL NAME when posting to this blogs so that you will receive the appropriate credit for discussion participation.
Thank you. Dr. Spillett
Mary I agree with you when you state that the reflective theory as thinking in a deeper context about the new information. I think that this also directs the learner to be motivated to look at past experiences in a new light, be able to see connections between experiences and then make new meaning out of these two together and form a whole new.I am not sure that reflective learning can apply to all students. think about the ones who tend to do the same all the time no mater what. are they assimilating new information into their lives or are they just satisfied with the status quo and are happy to remain in a specific mode? I guess that would make them more of a non-reflective learner.You also mention critical thinking, which is a higher level of thought and application of meaning to a situation. Learned reflective thinking will enhance the ability to solve problems which is a component of critical thinking (Huang, 2006). Peltier, Hay & Drago (2005) suggest that the definition of reflective thinking is an exploration of an issue. this suggests to me that any learner should engage in some form of reflective thinking in order to apply new information to their situation. this also suggests to me that learners should be motivated to actually do this. I feel like I have run in a circle and now am looking at how do we stimulate learners to generate this type of learning? Seems simple to me, we see a problem and then we have to determine methods of 'fixing' the problem by assigning meaning to the components and then figuring out a manner of integration of this new information. You also mention that teachers can reflect on material but i think this is a practice that each learner must discover within themselves in order to become reflective learners/thinkers in their own right. Interesting post. elizabeth gatz
reference
Huang, I. (2006). Reflective learning for student data modeling. Allied Academies International Conference.10(2), p. 29. Retrieved on February 4, 2009 from ProQuest online library.
Peltier, J, W., Hay, A. & Drago, W. (2005). The reflective learning continuum: reflecting on reflection. Journal of Marketing Education. 27(3), p. 250-263. Retrieved on February 4, 2009 from ProQuest online library.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it connects the their prior and current knowledge to the new information. (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgardner, 2007). The reflective learning theory complements the constructivist theory as well, compounding the importance of using past experiences to enhance our decision-making skills in everyday scenarios. Although the reflective theory, at the educational level, is focused mainly on the androgogical applications, the reality is that reflection takes place at a subconscious level (Smith, 2001) as well.
We as educators go through the reflective process of learning on a daily basis. I teach geometry to high school students. As I am going through my period, I am assessing how the students are accepting the new knowledge. I reflect on first period compared to fourth period. I reflect on this year compared to last year. How are they doing with the material? Are they overwhelmed? Do they understand it? How do I know they understand it?
Merriam, et al (2007), write about the reflective theory as a means of retaining newfound knowledge. Over the years, I have done this in several different ways. An obvious tool educators use is to have the student sit down and write a reflective paper on what they learned that day or that week. If the student takes the assignment seriously, it truly can help them retain and apply the concepts. Another way I have used reflective practices is to have the students get together into group and talk about how their past experience can relate to the material being covered. This not only, helps the individual to reflect, but also gives each student the opportunity to hear other and possibly link their past memories of experiences to someone else’s.
References:
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, M. (2001) Donald Schön: learning, reflection and change. Retrieved from: http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-schon.htm on February 3, 2009.
One of the most compelling ideas that I ran across in reviewing the literature for this module was the idea of tacit learning, which, as I understand it is knowing without understanding how or why we know.
As I understand it, reflective practice includes this perhaps by memorializing such intuitive processing. Would that be your understanding as well?
Thank you,
Suzanne Crawford
Reference
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), 395–409.
Hi Matt, How would you know if your students were overwhelmed, retaining the material you teach or if they learned anything at all? Thanks, John Hedrick
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because reflection is about maximizing deep and minimizing surface approaches to learning. In exploring how reflective practice can support and aid learning, it is helpful to acknowledge how we learn. First and foremost, learning is individual. All learners begin from their own origins of knowledge and have their own set of experiences to draw upon. Secondly, learning is contextual, students need to understand that the context in which they learn and operate affects how and what they understand. Another key point is that learning is relational. In order to make sense and achieve a deep understanding of material and experiences, students need to relate new information to existing knowledge and experiences, which is best achieved through the process of reflection. This enables you to think about the what and how we learn and understand that it impacts on how well we do. Some may adopt a surface approach to learning, which may have little intrinsic interest in a subject and are more likely to view assessment tasks as a means to an end.
Some students may adopt a deeper approach committed to understanding and taking the time to think about feedback in order that they may improve their performance. The difference between the two approaches is that the deep learner reflects on experience.
In conclusion, reflection can be viewd as having four main purposes. (1)Reflection helps learners to understand what they already know,(individual).
(2)Identify what they need to know,
(contextual). (3)Make sense of new information and feedback,(relational). (4)Guide choices for further learning,(developmental).
Boud, Keogh,and Walker noted that
Reflection is an important human activity in which people recapture their experience that is important in learning(1985:19).
Boud,D., Keogh, R., Walker, D.,
(1985).Promoting Reflection in Learning, A Model. London:Kogan Page
Patricia Reed Reflective
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it connects prior and current knowledge to new information Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgardner, 2007). Argyris and Schon (1992), states that Theory in Practice, is “implicit knowledge’ and ‘tacit knowledge’ are used interchangeably and taken to mean that ‘we know more that we can tell and more than our behavior consistently show (Kinsella, 2007).
One example that comes to mind from my own experience I had just been assigned to the psychiatric unit of the institution when an inmate in his fifty enters the hall area where I was dispensing medication. He stated in a strange, frighten and antagonistic voice “I need a drink of blood now” he also had a cup in his hand. I quickly stood up and ordered the inmate to stand down, that I will call the hospital for his drink of blood, only if he go and sit in the corner. I dispatched Search and Escort Officers to remove him from the building, and then I called the psychiatric department. The psychiatrist informed me that the inmate was a Charles Manson follower; he killed his family and did drink their blood. Schon (1983) states that knowing is in the action and is revealed by spontaneous, skillful execution of the performance, which one is characteristically unable to make verbally explicit (Kinsella, 2007). In particularly, Schon call upon Birdwhistell work: (1) There are actions, recognitions, and judgments which we know how to carry out spontaneously; we do not have to think about them prior to or during their performance. (2) We are often unaware of having learned to do these things, we simply find ourselves doing them. (3) In some cases, we were once aware of the understandings which were subsequently internalized in our feeling for the stuff of action. In other cases, we may never have been aware of them. In both cases, however, we are usually unable to describe the knowing which our action reveals ( Schon, 1983).
References
Kinsella, E. (2006, August). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective
practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286. Retrieved
February 1, 2009, doi:10.1080/14623940600837319
Kinsella, E. (2007, August). Embodied Reflection and the Epistemology of Reflective Practice.
Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(3), 395-409. Retrieved February 1, 2009,
doi:10.1111/j.1467-9752.2007.00574.x
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide. (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schon, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. United State of
America: Basic Books.
Myrtle,
You indicated in your post the importance of learning being individualized. As an educator, how does one provide individualized education in a classroom setting. Isn't reflective theory more of a emotional types of learning? It seems difficult to encourage reflective thinking in a regular classroom setting. Please let me know what your thoughts on this are. Thanks!
Jennifer
The reflective theory best explains why adults learns because " . . . it creates and clarifes meaning in terms of self, and which results in changed conceptual perspective" (Boyd and Fales, 1983). The fundamental theory that one learns from their personal experience was established by Dewey (1902). More than a hundred years later, a significant body of research has tested and tried this theory to be true in application.
As a proponent that the most influential learning takes place through the evaluation of mistakes, I contend that reflective learning theory allows for an individualized approach to mastering concepts. Through reflection in action, the student is able to take in the new information and apply to their existing framework of experiences.
However, I stongly contend that reflective learning theory must be established within a "safe" environment that values and respects the student disclosure of experiences. Research indicates that journal writing is a helpful tool as a means to acquire and improve reflective thinking (Grieman & Covington, 2007; Dinkelman, 2000; Goldsby & Cozza, 1998). Therefore, it is my practice to implement journal writing both in class and out of class to open the boundaries for students to produce a process of reflective learning -- not necessarily the correct answer. I respond to the journal writing with questions to continue the process.
Boyd, E.M., & Fales, A. W. (1983). Reflective learing: key to learning from experience. Journal of Humanistic Psychology 23(2), 99-117.
Dewey, J.(1902). The child and the curriculum (Chicago, University of Chicago Press).
Dinkelman, T. (2000). An inquiry into the development of critical reflection in secondary student teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 195-222.
Goldsby, D.S. & Cozza, B. (1998). Using reflective journals in college education courses. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 34(3), 112-113.
Greiman, B.D., & Covington, H.K. (2007). Reflective thinking and journal writing: examining student teachers' perceptions of preferred reflective modality, journal writing outcomes, and journal structure. Career and Technical Educaton Research 32(2), 115-139.
Suzanne, I looked at this idea you have poised and I think that the tacit knowledge we employ in our reflection of new information does indeed play a component in our use of this theory. according to Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartne (2007, p. 172)tacit knowledge is important in gathering data which will relate to our assimilation of new knowledge. Last week I taught a lecture about what is knowledge. one concept I talked about was 'ultimates' which are known to be true but are nor proveable. I was reminded of this lecture when I read your post. we are utilizing our differing forms of knowledge all the time, even when we do not really consciously try to use these type of knowledge. One thing that we did to help cement this idea in class was through a game that forced each student to take a group of cards and find the pair, other students carried cards. I have a very diverse group of students in culture and age differences, and it was interesting to see how they figured out which was their pair. some of the pairs were related in tv shows or foods or couples. depending on your era , culture and or age caused the studnets to rely on different methods of figuring out their pair. they young ones did not get the old time comedians or old couples but were good at the new couples, some of the differnet ethnic groups did not know the foods like chicken and cumpings they wanted to make it apple dumplings. we ahd fun but also proved a point about the types of knowledge they all use everyday. thanks fro the comments. elizabeth gatz
reference
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it considers one's own experiences in applying knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schon, 1996). Adults do not like situations in which they are being told what to do without being given the opportunity to become a participant in the process. Adults learn by listening, watching, doing and by being coached in their doing. Not only do they apply what they had heard and learned from lectures, books and demonstrations but when they participated in actions that were related to their current experiences, they were able to better retain the information (Brockbank, 2007).
Reflective learning can also be beneficial for professional development (Ferraro, 2000). In a study done with teachers, reflective learning helps them understand their own teaching style, which in turns makes them more effective in their field. I have seen this in my role as the Director of Orientation and First Year Experience. I think back to before I started my doctoral journey and how I used to work with incoming transfer students (which consists mostly of adults) and realized that I was doing them a disservice. I was programming for them the same way I programmed for the 18-19 year old students. As a result, they would leave the orientation early without getting all of the information that they needed. Through reflective practice, I have been able to better assess the needs of the adult learner so that during the orientation process, they will remain focused, happy, and more willing to stay for the entire session.
References:
Brockbank, A. (2007). Facilitating reflective learning in higher education. Buckingham, GBR: Open University Press
Ferraro, J. M. (2000). Reflective practice and professional development. ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education. Washington, D.C.
Schon, D. A. (1996). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Matt, based on your post it is obvious that tenets found in reflective theory appeal to you. I would like to know if during your research you read any information on measurable outcomes for reflective theory? Also, are you in a position to gauge if older students understand the refelctive process more so than do students in general; or, do you think reflective theory is applicable with all students?
The Reflective theory best explains why adults learn because Reflective learning according to Schon is “a world that is constructed through versions, as opposed to a world that is ‘found’ or ‘ready-made’.” Schon ( 1987) continues to reinforce his theory by suggesting that educators whom philosophically engage in their work are reconstructing their sphere of knowledge and challenging what “might be”. ( Kinsella, 2007) Therefore, Shon’s (1987) ideology towards educators “They have professional ways of seeing their world and a way of constructing and maintaining the world as they see it” ( Kinsella, 2007) suggest accepting things at face value is easy to do but to reflect on what one visualizes, hears and or conceptualizes is the ability to critically think. Reflective learning enables an individual to energize their brain by critically analyzing information, situations, and concerns which in turn begins the process of reflective learning based on previous knowledge. This process facilitates significant change in self assurance and creation of perception. Schon believed thoroughly in “reflection in action” which means: “the way we change practice and theory during practice.” In the next two paragraphs I am going to explain how Lev Vygotsky, Constructivist and critical thinking supports Schon’s theory of Reflective learning.
Lev Vygotsky coined the word “scaffolding” meaning the “zone of proximal development, which represents the gap between a student’s actual level of independent problem-solving ability and the potential level that s/he could reach with knowledgeable guidance.” (Sorenson, 2006, p. 300) With the understanding that Lev Vygotsky is referring to the individual learner; this can be applied to the instructor as well. The capability of an individual varies and with guidance from the instructor one can potentially reach their prospective. (Witzig, 2009)
In accordance with Schon’s reflective learning, this process reinforces my belief in a constructivists view point. Constructivists believe taking a proactive role versus a passive role in learning is the key to comprehension and retention. Constructivists deem that people learn through active interaction and critically analyzing opposing views and beliefs maintained by others. (Witzig, 2009) When Educators challenge themselves and provide perceptual differences to challenge what they already know this process exemplifies the reflective learning theory. As an educator, one can design/redesign their curriculum to incorporate challenges and critical thinking about the world around them. Many changes and ideas that transpire stem from spontaneous actions produced during interaction with his/her students or colleagues.
In conclusion implementing the process of critical thinking, scaffolding and reflective learning simultaneously allows the instructor to generate creativity, diversity and opposing views conveyed by students and or colleagues, allowing for and forcing the instructor to cognitively conceptualize the surroundings. (Witzig, 2009) As Schon (1983) admits it is through acknowledgement and restructuring of the problem the solutions becomes unraveled through spontaneity of actions. Schon describes this as reflection-in-action. (Kinsella, 2006)
Therefore, Schon (1987) admits when educators define the implied, and adhere to principles of significance; optional behaviors guide the reality of practice and develop a vast cavity of potential actions. (Kinsella, 2006)
References
Kinsella, E. A. (2006, August). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s
theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective
Practice, 7(3), 277-286. doi:10.1080/14623940600837319
Kinsella, E. A. (2007, August). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of
reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(3, Pt. AN
28556858), 395-409, 15. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9752.2007.00574
Merriam, S. B., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood:
Comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sorenson, E. K. (Editor). Enhancing Learning Through Technology.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/waldenu/Doc?id=10118565&ppg=341
Witzig, K. (2009). Knowles’s assumptions assignment. Unpublished manuscript.
The Reflective Learning Theory
Each one of us has a different way of learning. Reflective learning theories are based on the notion that the learner reflects on their own past experiences and apply that knowledge to practical situations. The reflection process is a complicated process that may result in creating new knowledge and different techniques in this knowledge society and information age. In our global and technological society only gathering information is no longer sufficient; successful learning is evident when individuals are able to reflect, critically analyze, synthesize and apply knowledge (Bloom, 1956). The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it allows them to reflect and think while problem solving as well as afterwards.
David Kolb (1984) argues that individual learning is a transactional process between personal knowledge, and the external environment (a social process). Experiential learning maximizes developmental opportunities within this framework. Kolb’s learning model is a cycle where the learning process draws on orientations that are polar opposites: active and reflective, concrete and abstract. The model shows these dimensions in opposite quadrants of a learning cycle. Learners move through the sequence of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. The Learning Cycle suggests that it is not sufficient to have an experience in order to learn. It is necessary to reflect on the experience to make generalizations and formulate concepts which can then be applied to new situations.
However, different people prefer to start at different points on the cycle. Although the cycle remains the same, the tendency to start at different points on the cycle identifies preferred learning styles. For example, reading the online materials from the class modules and applying them with past experiences and instruction constitutes active learning.
Schon (1983) takes another approach to reflective learning. His beliefs are based on three major assumptions: (1) those involved in reflective practice are committed to both problem finding and problem solving; (2) reflective practice means making judgments about what actions will be taken in a particular situation; and (3) issues of power and oppression in the judgment making process need to be addressed. The most predominate way adult educators have incorporated an interactive reflective mode is through what Schon (1987) has termed "reflection-in-action". Reflection-in-action assists us in reshaping "what we are doing while we are doing it" (Schon, 1987), and is often characterized as being able to "think on our feet". In the field of education, it refers to the process of the educator studying his or her own teaching methods and determining what works best for the students. For example, as former instructor I drew on past teaching and research experiences and explored storytelling. I used storytelling as a way to address difficult situations and at the same time maximize learning in the classroom. It was an effective way to share insight and form critical evaluations about the class.
As a reflective learner, you’ll think about how you’ll use new knowledge and skills in your future activities – so learning is always linked to action, and theory to practice. It’s also useful to reflect on how you learn best. This may be through private study, networking with peers, formal courses, mentoring, or a combination of techniques. While each person seems to have a bias, we each adapt our style to suit the challenge. The more flexible we are, the better we are at adapting to different learning situations.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. London: Longman
Schön, D. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think in action, London: Temple Smith.
Kolb D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning experience as a source of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Chandra,
Would an unlimited amount of reflection create more confusion than it is intended to solve ?
Tim
Reflective learning is a great way for the adult learner to process information, as it is necessary for most adults to make a connection with their past life experiences and relate them to their current learning objectives. Reflection is important to expanding your thinking beyond what you know at a given time. The ability to think about or "ponder" what could be as opposed to what is leads to critical thinking. Which, of course, is essential to scholarly work.
The Reflective Learning Theory is one that is very interesting to me. As I learn more about what this theory entails, I am inclined to believe that it is a very liberating way to learn. As individuals think about what "is", they cannot help reflect on what brought them to this point. In an effort to find a solution, conclusion, or to bring closure to an issue, it is natural to think over those things that have transpired in your life, or to use other experiences that relate to what is happening now. In order to gain additional knowledge or to put what we think we know into perspective, we most certainly have to connect with our past. Reflection is akin to playing a tape on an endless loop, trying to make sense of what you are seeing and hearing. The hope is that you can come to some conclusion about these reflections can help bring about the answers you seek. Applying this type of learning to academics opens the mind to new and different possibilities which goes beyond the purely academic. It allows student to think freely and to think more creatively in the process. Educators who are able to teach from the reflective perspective will be able to engage students in such a way that new ideas are formed and dialogue is encouraged, because there really is no wrong or right. Donald Schon refers to this teacher interaction as "reflection-in-action" (1987). Schon wrote "when a teacher turns her attention to giving kids reason to listening to what they say, then teaching itself becomes a form of reflection-in action" (1987).
Reference:
Schon, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner, San Francisco: Josey-Bass.
This a general post and not directed to anyone in particular. I am not an educator, so it is extremely difficult to relate to any discussions on classroom teaching except from an adult learner perspective. I can merely speculate as to the most ideal teacher-student relationship and how effective teaching and teaching styles impact learning. However, I do believe that reflective learning is an open and emotional connection for the student to make with his/her present environment. Teachers who are able to engage students on this level provide a more successful classroom experiences for their students. If students are not engaged, they are not learning. Reflective learning gives the students an opportunity to think abount or "ponder" if you will, what "can be" as opposed to "what is" using experiences from "what was". In other words, exploring the past to make connections to the present and beyond. This process leads to critical thinking and analysis which is important to the learning process for all students.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it demonstrates that a person cannot truly learn something until he/she becomes an active participant in the process. The theory states that to become a reflective learner, one must reject the practice of rote memorization of facts or material as a learning tool. A person, according to the theory, cannot attain a full understanding of a topic unless he/she is not engaged in an active or critical learning process (Moon, 2004, p. 68).
It is clear then, that reflective learning require students utilize all of their cognitive abilities to achieve learning (Herod, 2002). All practice-based learning relies heavily on the concepts articulated by Donald Schön. He postulated that in order to gain a new understanding of a topic or to fully learn and comprehend new information, a practitioner:
Allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation that he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomenon before him, and on the prior understandings that have been implicit in his behavior. He carries out an experiment that serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomenon and a change in the situation. (Schön 1983: 68)
Schön’s theory stated that a learner had to learn to think things through rather than rely on already established concepts and ideas. Schön felt that the uniqueness of every learning opportunity negated a generic approach to learning following pre-established patters; rather, he felt that careful reflection on past experiences and an increased reliance in more considered cognitive actions. Schön felt that learners who were encouraged to think carefully about what they did while they were doing it, tended to achieve a more profound learning experience. A reflective learning experience is not one based on the let’s see how this works approach, rather, it is based on a let's think it through first behavior (Daudelin, M.W., 1996, pp. 36-48).
I feel that this theory blends well with the concept of adult learning. An adult learner is used to being a “decision maker in his life” (Vella, 2002, p.129), so he/she is “self-directed, self-motivated, experienced, ready-to-lean, and in need of knowledge”. An adult learner views new information subjectively, and relates new information to past experiences by often asking "why.” Also, an adult learner examines his feelings about what he/she is learning (Smith, 2002).
Schön spoke of “reflection-in-action” (Schön, 1983, p.68), and “reflection-on-action” (Schön, 1983, p.138). According to him, reflection-in-action is about interpreting information received in an immediate situation, whereas reflecting-on-action is about reflecting on earlier encounters. I feel both of these are of value to an adult learner, because it forces the student to engage in a cognitive learning process that is likely to result in a more profound level of understanding of the subject matter.
In summary, the reflective theory is very effective because it makes a student question assumptions, utilize critical thinking skills, focus on in-depth analyzis of facts, take time to recall and analyze actions taken and the processes used to arrive at these actions in order to to achieve personal growth and optimal learning outcomes.
References
Cheek, B. (2008, October). The process of reflective learning. Retrieved February 4, 2009, from http://gp-training.net/training/educational_theory/reflective_learning/reflect.htm
Daudelin, M. W. (1996). Learning from experience through reflection. Organizational Dynamics. 24(3), 36-48.
Herod, L. (2002). Adult learning: From theory to practice. Retrieved February 3, 2009, from http://www.nald.ca/adultlearningcourse/glossary.htm#r
Moon, J.A., (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning. New York: Routledge.
Peltier, J.W., Hay, A. & Drago, W. (2005). The Reflective Learning Continuum: Reflecting on Reflection. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(2), 205-223. Retrieved February 6, 2009, from ProQuest Education Journals database. (Document ID: 1189106001).
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, M. K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and anadragogy. Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Retrieved February 3, 2009 from www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm.
Vella, J. (2002). Learning to listen, learning to teach: The power of dialogue in educating adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because the theory relates previously learned information to help solve a problem or to gain new skills. Learners need to be able to analyze situations or problems, determine the nature of the problem and find a new solution to the problem by making a connection to prior knowledge (Prayer, 1993). Prayer (1993) argues that "self-reflective learning means to become critically aware of what has been taken for granted about one's learning and the assuptions underlying one's values and behaviors" (p. 44). For a learner to become critcally reflective, the learner must draw on assumptions, premises, and experiences. Prayer (1993) offers several strategies for educators to help develop reflective learning such as: role playing critical questioning, and engaging in dialogue with other colleagues.
Schon's (1992) work with reflective learning included the notions of reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. As I understand it, reflection-in-action is similar to thinking on your feet. We examine our experiences and feelings, and act upon the situation at the present. This is also termed tacit knowledge (Kinsella, 2007). I found this to be very interesting. Our initial reactions to a given situation are very important. Thinking-on-action occurs later, after the situation has subsided. Upon reflection to these reactions we can gain knowledge and understanding.
References:
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), pp. 395–409.
Prayer, F. (1993). Critical reflectivity learning theory: Implications for the workplace. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 43-48.
Schon, D. (1992). The theory of inquiry: Dewey's legacy to education. Curriculum Inquiry, 22(2). 119-139.
Shari,
I wrote my post on transformative learning theory. I read your post on the reflective learning theory and relate it to many reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action situations that I use with my students. I critically think about these situations and reflect my helpful strategies toward transferring students’ learning. I feel that every time I use the reflective learning strategies, the more transformation of learning outcomes occur. As you mentioned, students are always “aware of what has been taken for granted about one's learning and the assumptions underlying one's values and behaviors” (Prayer, 1993), but it is unstable development notion. In science classes, I teach community college students, reflective ways of learning that works best when solving problems, finding solutions, and analyzing situations. On the other hand, transformative strategies work best, as you summarized, when playing critical questioning, and engaging in dialogue with students. I enjoyed reading your post.
Reference:
Prayer, F. (1993). Critical reflectivity learning theory: Implications for the workplace. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 43-48.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it uses methods of reflection to connect adults to their past and current knowledge and helps them to understand and form a relationship to newly found information. (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007). Reflection allows an adult to use higher order thinking skills to dissect an experience and then formulate the best theoretic method to relate and improve on a past assumptions or theories. Reflection is related to the term tacit knowledge because adults collect information that is related to their formulation of new knowledge (Merriam, et al 2007). Adults learn by using various methods. I believe that assimilation is a common practice in which adults learn. I notice that many educators read information and monitor other teaching techniques of other educators who they feel have found new and existing ways to be effective teachers. According to Schon, adults relate to their own personal experiences in applying knowledge.
For example, during staff developmental meetings, I often relate current subject matters to prior experiences that I have encountered. By using this method this teaching method, I provide more understandable meanings and concepts in which they also can relate their past experience to. As a result of using the reflective theory, my teachers are more willing to engage in meaningful, productive conversations.
Reference:
Merriam, S.B, Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.) San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Schon, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
Kate's response to rtapia:
I completed my initial blog on the experiential learning theory. While I sincerely believe experience is a major part of the educational experience, I think there is a positive similarity between the reflective and experiential theories.
I agree with your discussion the importance of learning in terms of doing, not just learning through "rote memorization." I think part of learning through doing is based on our previous experiences.
Because I think learning is based on some of our previous experiences, I respectfully disagree with the following ideology: "Schön’s theory stated that a learner had to learn to think things through rather than rely on already established concepts and ideas." While I agree thinking things through is certainly important, I believe that we rely on our experiences and previous knowledge to help us think things through. This idea does not suggest the reflective learning theory is incorrect in stating a new idea may come from learning to think things through. I just do not think we automatically know how to do this concept. Our previous experiences help us learn how to think things through. And we get better as we continue to practice thinking in this manner.
Reference
Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Reflective learning expounds on the idea of learning from experiences. In the context of professional development, reflection is necessary as one gains “self-knowledge” (Kuit, Reay, & Freeman, 2001). One believes this way of knowing is innately built into the individual, acting as a spring welling up to achieve ones understanding of the world. This understanding of one’s world, I propose is the explanation of one’s development of intuition. This intuition is reflected on the premise that knowledge is gained through reflection of experiences and is “embodied” (Kinsella, 2007). Further, these experiences are ones perception of the world, one’s reality. Given that, in the context of development, does not the individual expand cognition through a continual process of reflecting? According to Kinsella (2006), this maturational process does involve the expansion of cognition. Therefore, I propose that this development of cognition leads to the ability of the individual to adapt to circumstances (Kinsella). For example, a nurse begins a leadership program with two of one’s colleagues, with the intentions of gaining experience and knowledge. After several days of preparation and studying, the nurse takes the first exam. Upon completing the exam, the nurse reflects and discusses with one’s colleagues preparatory strategies and information presented. Using this reflective process, the nurse then changes the strategy in preparing for future exams to ensure success. Therefore, it is illustrated in this scenario how reflective learning assists the individual to identify and resolve problems. Also, with stated scenario, effective reflective practices are not completed in isolation, meaning to effectively gain from the reflective process it is necessary for one to collaborate with others to meet set challenges ((Kuit, Reay, & Freeman).
I believe reflective learning has other implications for education. As one prepares to become an educator or return to education, the use of journaling or peer observation is helpful to assist the educator to reflect and learn from experiences (Loughran, 2002). This reflective process provides a meaningful method for the educator to approach learning how to teach, thus, supporting one’s professional development (Loughran).
Kinsella, E. (2007). Embodied Reflection and the Epistemology of Reflective Practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education 41(2), 395-409.
Kinsella, E. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schon’s theory of reflective practice: echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice 7(3), 277-286.
Kuit, J., Reay, G., and Freeman, R. (2001). Experiences of reflective teaching. Active learning in higher education 2(2), 128-142.
Loughran, J. (2002). Effective reflective practice in search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education 53(1), 33-43.
Reflective Learning can be applied to both formal and informal learning situations. The process of reflective learning allows an individual to make judgments in difficult and routine every day sitiuations. The decisions or judgements are made based upon information/data stored form past and current experiences.
The characteristics of mature reflective judgement indicates that students must also develop the ability to view situations fro multiple perspectives, the ability to search for alternative explanations of classroom events, and the ability to use evidence in supporting or evaluating a deceision or position(Ross,p.23). Understanding the definition of reflective learning and its use, can create a framwork too help students evaluate their progress towards a goal.
References:
Ross, D.D. (1989). First steps in developing a reflective approach. Journal of Teacher Education. 40,22
Kinsella, E.K.(2007). Embodied reflection and epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education. 41,3
Micheal Strohschein
The reflective leadership theory best explains why adults learn because it predicts future decisions based on past experiences. An adult will use the experiences gained in their past to make appropriate decisions when the time arises. In the book Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide supports this theory by stating that reflective learning allows a person to make judgments based on experience and prior knowledge ( Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner , 2007).There are two concepts that are important to reflective learning theory. These two concepts are: reflection-on- action and reflection-in-action ( Merriam, et.al).
According to Merriam (2007) reflection-on-action involves thinking through a situation after it has happened. This type of reflection allows individuals to take a look at decisions that have been made recently and compare them to decisions and reactions made in the past. Reflection-in-action is where the participant has to quickly make a decision on the spot. It has also been referred as reaction triggered by surprise (Merriam, 2007). An individual who is flexible and adaptable can easily find success with this type of concept.
Adult learners feel validated by their past experiences and need to feel like they are invested in their studies. Reflective learning theory allows adult learners to do this while still gaining valuable skills.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mary, I agree. Tacit is knowing more that we can say. We have a number of experiences that we are unable to verbalize however, given the right conditions or situation, we will know how to react by triggering subconscious memories.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because through reflection individuals can attain a greater sense of the learning process they experience. Reflection brings together the cognitive and affective domains involved in the learning process (Thorpe, 2000). Reflection and introspection are usually used synonymously, but reflection insinuates maintaining a certain distance from an event that allows the learner to view it from a different perspective. Teachers can extend learning out of the classroom by fostering reflection exercises among students, thus promoting continuous learning as a way of life. Furthermore, reflection is applicable to both knowledge and experience (Thorpe, p. 3). It would seem that reflection is a natural process in all individuals. This notion of reflection being natural derives from Merriam, et. al. (2006) who states that individuals tend to “plan, monitor, and reflect upon…learning experiences”.
The major significance of reflective learning resides in its capacity to provide the individual with insight that leads the learner to make generalizations and draw conclusions about the new knowledge (Thorpe, 2000). Reflection of learning focuses on the process of learning and not on the context. Thorpe establishes that learning is about achieving understanding and applying the new knowledge to different situations and opportunities that put to test previous learning.
Constructivism advocates believe that “all knowledge is constructed, at least in part, through a process of reflection” (Kinsella, 2006, p. 279). As a learning strategy, reflection contributes to three learning theories: experiential learning, perspective transformation, and cognitive monitoring and metalearning (Thorpe). In experiential learning, reflections constitute an essential component with which learners recall a variety of events, the implications of the experiences and the values that are tested. Reflection in perspective transformation allows the individual to initiate critical analysis of experiences. In cognitive monitoring, learners use reflection to consider what they know and how they know it, in other words, to regard the process of learning.
Chetcuti (2007) studied the use of portfolios as reflective instruments. She concludes that reflective exercises can help individuals resolve similar situations by providing a framework of past decisions and actions. Reflections provide opportunities for critical analysis of personal strengths and weaknesses so that improvement may occur. Also, writing reflections instill individuals to discover a voice that fosters personal identity. Nevertheless, reflective learning activities should not be introduced without purpose, for their effectiveness could be hindered (Thorpe, 2000).
Reflective learning is learning from experience (Merriam, et. al, 2007). Its value resides in the applicability to learning experiences and to life experiences as well. Planned activities can be incorporated to different courses effectively fostering the learners’ growth and development. There can be no wrong or right in reflective learning. The degree of development will depend on the depth of the questions asked in the exploration of answers to life’s questions.
Resources:
Chetcuti, D. (2007). The use of portfolios as a reflective learning tool in initial teacher education: a Maltese case study. Reflective Practice, 8(1), pp. 137-149.
Kinsella, E. A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective practice: echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), pp. 277-286.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Thorpe, M. (2000). Reflective learning and distance learning – made to mix by design and by assessment. Information Services & Use, 20(2), pp. 145-158.
Patricia,
In your experience with the inmate, do you think your actions were based on active and conscious processing of thoughts?
The reflective learning theory allows adults to learn through reflective practices. It is a combination of doing and thinking. Reflection is a cognitive process where learners make sense of experiences and gain new knowledge. Reflective theory has constructivist underpinnings (Kinsella, 2006). Constructivist learning theory occurs when new knowledge is constructed when a learner uses reflection and prior knowledge. Educators can challenge students to critically reflect on experiences in a trusting open environment. Educators can challenge learners assumptions and validate knew assumptions through reflection. Reflective practice allows for professional development and knowledge enhancement of the learner. The learner can examine cultural influences, goals, and practices to gain knowledge using reflection. Reflection can be used as an analytical exercise to think through a situation after it happens. I feel reflective learning theory is ideal way to develop professional nurses. Nurses need a broad knowledge base to be able to care for clients. Reflection teaching methodologies such as journaling, portfolio development, concept mapping, and simulation are often used to develop critical thinking in nursing education. As a nurse educator, I have found that reflective methodologies are an effective way to teach nursing students. I often use my personal experiences as a nurse to explain concepts to students. On a daily basis, I use personal reflection to guide my teaching and to deal with everyday life decisions. I feel reflection is something we automatically do to deal with everyday issues.
Kinsella, A. K. (2001). Reflections on reflective practice. The Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 68(3), 195-198.
Kinsella, A. K. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donal Schon’s theory of reflective practice. Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286.
Kinsella, A. K. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), 395-409.
Merriam, S. B., Cafarella, R. S., and Baumgartner, L. M. (2007) (3rd Ed.). Learning in Adulthood a Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
To Ella,
I found as an educator reflective practice has guided by careeer also. Each semester, I learn something new from each group of students because they are so different. I adapt exercises, assignments, and readings each semester becuase of my reflective practices.
I would like to challenge you with your quote that for reflective practices to be successful they need to be in collaboration. I think it can be successful either way. I wonder which would have more impact on the learning process?
M. Brown,
You mentioned the goal is that some students become deep learners. How can we as educators ensure that all students experience reflection at some level? How do we assess the depth of their reflections and learning?
Mary@walden,
If the reflective theory depends on the reflective process of the adult, what happen if you have bad experiences and your reflection is based on those? What will be the impact on the new learning?
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it is an "active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge" (Dewey, 1933, as cited in Tauer & Tate, 1998). Reflective learning allows one to realize the often unaware perceptions and judgements that one makes in specific situations so as to promote changes in those habits and decisions that may have otherwise become routine (Epstein, 2008). According to Dreyfus (as cited in Epstein), master reflective learners constantly question and are thus able to continually grow and contextualize their knowledge for any situation. Reflective learning thus provides a foundation, it seems, for one to take every situation in context either during or after the fact and analyze it in order to learn from it for the future.
This type of learning style is enforced through narratives, journals, and blogs, among other things. The reflective nature of this learning promotes critical thinking based on intuition, outcomes, and processes. Interestingly, reflective thinking is not hindered by routine thinking that allows one to fulfill daily tasks, thus freeing the mind for more critical reflection on the important learning situations (Tauer & Tate, 1998). It may be suggested then, that reflective learning promotes transformation and experiential learning as outcomes for the learner; in other words, reflective learning may be the basis for the other learning theories. Without reflective learning, transformation and experiences would not hold as great value in learning.
References
Epstein, R.M. (2008). Reflection, perception and the acquisition of wisdom. Medical Education, 42, 1048-1050.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Tauer, S.M. & Tate, P.M. (1998). Growth of reflection in teaching: Reconciling the models. Teaching Education Journal, 9(2), 143-153.
posting by Shaneisha Dodson
for Chandra.
In your posting you wrote that teacher education, reflective practice supports teachers as they move from routine actions in their teaching to more considered, cognitative actions. Why do yo think the above transformation makes teachers "better," ?
Pam,
To take information and present it in a way that is unique or new should be the goal of all educators. “When a practitioner makes sense of a situation he perceives to be unique, he sees it as something already present in his repertoire. To see this site as that one is not to subsume the first under a familiar category or rule. It is, rather, to see the unfamiliar, unique situation as both similar to and different from the familiar one, without at first being able to say similar or different with respect to what. The familiar situation functions as a precedent, or a metaphor, or... an exemplar for the unfamiliar one” (Schön, 1983, p. 138).
All reflection is seen as beneficial and is dependent upon on the individual and it would be ill of me to say that one holds greater weight than another. In addition the process of reflection is also unique to the individual and topic and may take different lengths of time depending on the variables. The reflection may take place in the classroom or it may take place in the future. It is a stepping stone/groundwork and is dependent on the intended outcome of the learning experience. According to the Encyclopedia of Informal Education (2009) the impact of Donald Schön 's work on reflective practice has been significant - with many training and education programmes for teachers and informal educators adopting his core notions both in organizing experiences and in the teaching content.
References
The Encyclopedia Of Informal Education. (2009). Donald Schon (Schön): Learning, reflection and change. Retrieved February 6, 2009, from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-schon.htm
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
KProft,
Good morning, my name is Nicholas. Excellent and well-written post. I enjoyed reading about your implementation of journal writing for your students, in and out of the classroom.
I was just curious of what do you have them write about? Is an open forum, where they write what they feel? or Do you mandate the topics for them to journalize?
Also, did you ever try any other techniques, methods, or practices to try and open the boundaries for students to produce a process of reflective learning?
Please take care and have a great weekend.
-Nicholas
To Ihemmila,
I find that effective reflection does work best when collaborating with other peers. Yes, the reflective process can be completed in isolation, but one would get more feedback and offered a different angle of looking at necessary changes when incorporating others ideas into those relflections. I do agree, there are times when the reflective process is done best strictly by the indiviudal. Such as, when one is reviewing teaching strategies of practices. I still contend that deeper meaning would occur in collaboration.
To Mary,
I agree with your comment that the reflective process offers the individual a deeper understanding of the material presented. That as one is presented additional material, ones understanding is buildt from previous expereinces. My question then is would you consider this process of understanding, or expanding ones world a precursor to intuition?
To Chandra,
When you state "reflective learning is the process of internally examinig and explaining as issue of concern....resulting in a changed conceptual perspective," Would you consider that this "changed conceptual perspective" provides an explanaition of ones social cognitive development?
Teri Gwin here; Reflective practice as clarified by Kinsella (2004;2007) in her two articles that take Schon's concept and actually apply it to practice have supported for me a way to approach my new nursing faculty to express their "tacit" knowledge. I found this theory to be very beneficial for giving validity to what is often times devalued in professions that require a scientific foundation but work with the human factor, like nursing. That Kinsella is an Occupational Therapist by original training helps me to connect with her explanations and statements due to the fact that she finds ways to express complex thinking using a common language of health care service. However, it seems that both Schon and Kinsella imply that experience may be a key factor reflective practice. I found an article by Bobay,(2004) that questioned whether experience really mattered in the process of reflective thinking or practice. She found that experience actually lent itself to a cookbook style of thinking and not the complexity of reflective thinking in solution finding. She used Newman, (2002) and Benner (1984) to support that transformation of thinking must occur in reflective practice. "that it is not enough that a nurse has lived through the experince but ..must be changed in some way for it to be meaningful." (Bobay,2004,p.313)
The question arises for me; so what if we have tacit knowledge, if it is not transformative for our practice is it really representative of reflective practice? Can one be reflective and not be transformed?
To Pam,
You have posted some excellent points regarding this theoretical process. But, I would like to comment that, although each theory attempts to address how an adult learns, no one theory is inclusive. You are correct in your statement regarding the lack of cultural implications presented with this theory. I believe then, it would be the responsibility of the instructor to incorporate cultural points in ones presentation of material.
Your next question regarding activating schema and motivating those who are reluctant in accessing ones schema. To possibly address your questions I would suggest developing course activities that require the student to reflective on past expereinces and past courses. In the nursing program, students are required to access there past expereinces to learn and grow. As each course one completes leads to another course which one will access meaterial learned to gain further understaning. By developing such curriculum which builds on previous courses, I believe will assist your students to come out of their cacoon and take charge of ones education.
To Matt Ryan,
An additional thought about your comment on the reflective theory complements the constructivism and this reflective process often is at a subconscious level. I agree with your discussion, but, I would like to name that subconscious thinking as possibly intuition. As one reflects on world expereinces, lessons are learned and concepts are arived. I believe this could be called intuition. It is a way of knowing which one is unable to express that knowing in words, but rather by actions. For example, caring for a client in the ICU, the nurse is watching the clients Blood Pressure rise with other measurements, although the client is unable to speak, the nurse intuitively calls the physician to discuss the status of the client, stating one is unable to place ones finger on the problem, but something to wrong (changing client health status).
Reflective learning is the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective. Reflection can lead to greater self-awareness, which in turn is a first step to positive change. It is a necessary stage in identifying areas for improvement and growth in both personal and professional contexts. When we reflect from our experiences we try to create meaning and internalize our learning. Developing reflective skills help individuals to gain a more honest perspective of themselves this in turn, means clearer identification of their strengths and of those areas that require a little more work.
Learning is a process of active engagement with experience. It is what people do when they want to make sense of the world. It may involve the development or deepening of skills, knowledge, understanding, awareness, values, ideas and feelings, or an increase in the capacity to reflect. (Dunnais, 2009). In Kegan's view, reflecting on one's thoughts and feelings is not a simple process of learning to make new distinctions; it requires a transformation in the way the mind is organized. Robert Kegan's research points out that students need to alter the way they organize their minds if they are to be able to report accurately on their thoughts and problem-solving processes. If this is not achieved, students are likely to report, unconsciously, what they perceive others want them to report rather than what they actually think.
References:
Durrani, S., (2007). Lifelong learning through innovations projects at DASS. Aslib Proceedings. 59(2), 187-189.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Hi Janelle
I see that you discussed the importance of using prior information for this reflective theory..and this seems to be so closely lined with the transformative theroy. In your opinion how do you see them as being independent and different from each other?
Hello Mary@Walden-
From what I understand in your blog, the succuss of reflective learing depends on one's cognitive capabilities. It therefore is the best approach when one has "normal" brain functioning. What about those who have learning disabilities or specifically, those who have suffered tramatic brain injury? I work in the special education field and am wondering if this is would be a good approach for my students or if it is something reserved for those who are "normal". Thoughts?
Jennifer,
When I stated that "learning is individual, It was not meant to implicate that "learning was individualized." The intent of this statement was that individuals are responsible for their own learning and each individual regulates their own learning using self-knowledge and self-awareness to enhance their own learning. Like many aspects of studying, reflective learning in iteself is highly individual. I believe that those engaged in reflective practice in the classroom requires methods that brings teachers closer to the student viewpoint, while also recognizing that all viewpoints are mediated by individual experiences. Reflection both personally and in the classroom plays an intregal role both in the action and learning from it.
There is a close relationship between reflection and emotion or feelings that would possibly suggest that the use of reflection
in the academic context could provide an appropriate channel for exploration or expression. I see this as perhaps as self-awareness and of course also as an important factor that could provide opportunities for emotional engagement in learning.
Reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action absolutely fascinate me in the area of K-12 education. I have often run into teachers and administrators who react rather than use reflection-in-action. And then once they are reminded of protocols or understand the rest of the story and have time to reflect on their actions, they hesitate to change the decision - mainly because they find it so hard to say - I'm sorry, I was wrong.
Are there any suggestions on how to work with adults who do that? Know they were wrong but will not reverse a decision or ruling? I'm not asking for a magic bullet, just some words of wisdom if anything has worked for you in similar situation.
Thanks!
Reflective Learning Theory
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it is based on their own experiences and how they view those experiences in the learning process. Moon (2004) describes reflection as “a form of mental processing - like a form of thinking - that we may use to fulfill a purpose or to achieve some anticipated outcome or we may simply 'be reflective' and then an outcome can be unexpected” (p. 82). There are many ways to describe reflection. The key to the reflective learning theory is it is an effective tool in teaching and helping adults to learn. Whenever students get an opportunity to connect their past to a current situation it reinforces learning and makes it more concrete.
Bulpitt & Martin (2005) describes reflection as an opportunity to look at an event in a different way and then analyze the impact it has on ourselves and others. We are not only doing self-examination but we are also relating our values, beliefs, and traditions to that of other people. It is through this knowledge that the theory of reflection is born. Schön (1987) describes reflection as a process called reflection-in-action. It is as he states “the capacity to respond to surprise through improvisation on the spot” (p. 2). He looks at reflection as a way to create meaning by using your experiences as a basis for learning new information.
This learning can occur when we are faced with situations that are unfamiliar or unexpected. This confirms what (Britzman, 2000) states, which is “To implicate oneself in one’s own narratives of learning and teaching means turning habituated knowledge back on itself, and examining its most unflattering—for many, its most devastating --- features. It also means exploring how even this most unflattering moment may offer insight into making significance” (p. 204). As adult learners explore how to use reflection as a tool for learning it can be a motivation of achievement in areas of previous uncertainty. This will also require educators to create an environment where reflection is encouraged and appreciated in addition to being a part of the reflection process.
We must be willing to challenge our own thinking through asking questions like Allen and Wilmarth (2004) suggests, “How are we developing instruction that will incorporate reflection while still honoring the unique experiences of each student? When we allow students to reflect on their learning and create new ways of thinking, they can change the negative implications of the past. The overall goal of incorporating the reflective learning theory is as Ziegahn (2005), describes, the ability to move beyond what we know and challenge ourselves to understand the needs of our students in order to develop new perspectives. Educators need to be able to model the practice of reflective learning.
Schön (1983) describes this exchange as the instance where
“The practitioner allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation which he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomena before him, and on the prior understandings that have been implicit in his behavior. He carries out an experiment which serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomena and a change in the situation” (p. 68)
As students see reflection in action, they will be able to create their own reflections as they make changes based on their learning.
Although Kinsella (2007) contends that, the “implications for interpretation and application” has not been substantiated by research (p. 395). After researching the reflective learning theory, it is clear that it should be an integral part of the educational process. In the classroom, there are many ways of infusing reflection throughout the curriculum. It can be done in journals, peer sharing or through discussions. The end product is helping adults to learn; what better way is there than to use their own experiences and knowledge.
References
Allen, J. & Wilmarth, J. (2004). Cultural constuctivist zones. Journal of Teacher Education,
55(3), 214-226.
Britzman, D.P. (2000). Teacher education in the confusion of our times. Journal of Teacher
Education, 51(3), 200-204.
Bulpitt, H. & Martin, P.J. (2005). Learning about reflection from the student. Active Learning in
Higher Education, 6(3), 207-216.
Kinsella, E.A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal
of Philosophy of Education, 41(3), 395-409.
Moon, J. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. New
York: Routledge.
Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Schön, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. Presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C.
Ziegahn, L. (2005). Critical reflection on cultural difference in the computer conference. Adult
Education Quarterly, 56(1), 40-61.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because when an adult reflects upon an experience, they are developing thoughts about, opinions on, or even alternate ways to approach the situation they just experienced. This method of learning is deeply personal because it was initiated and completed by the individuals themselves and was not imposed upon them by other people. Reflection also allows the learner to expand their ability to think logically and critically, abilities that will help them adapt to most stressful situations in life.
What is involved in the reflective process? Reflection is based on experience, and according to Schön (1987), can take either the form of reflecting “on” action or reflecting “in” action, which he calls “reflection-in-action” (p. 27). When we reflect on action, we think back on an experience after it has occurred and ponder if our knowledge base had an impact on the outcome (Schön, 1987). Reflection-in-action is “action-present” and refers to our ability to respond to surprises as an event is actually occurring, with the possibility of influencing the impending outcome (Schön, 1987). In both cases, the learner walks away from the experience with knowledge that their actions were correct and can therefore be repeated, or knowledge that leads to positive changes in future actions.
In my experience as an instructor, I have learned more about my methods of instruction from reflecting on action. When a particular activity or method of delivery wasn’t successful, I didn’t repeat it. If students had a pleasant experience with something that I used in class, I would use it again in its present format or alter it in hopes of creating another positive learning experience. One of the most important things an instructor can do for their students is create experiences that are pleasant because those experiences are ones in which the students will reflect upon with sincerity. Referring to the instructor, Dewey (1997) said, “It is his business to arrange for the kind of experiences which, while they do not repel the student, but rather engage his activities are, nevertheless, more than immediately enjoyable since they promote having desirable future experiences” (p. 27). In the classroom setting, a student tends to learn more from reflecting on positive experiences. Negative classroom experiences will more than likely damage the student’s willingness to further learn from the instructor.
Although learning may occur in different ways, the reflective learning theory is by far the most personally fulfilling way that an adult can learn. It allows them to take an experience, critically analyze it, and create original thoughts on what the experience meant to them and how it impacted their lives on multiple levels. For instructors, personal reflection is the cornerstone on which they can develop methods of instruction that can have the maximum positive impact possible on their students.
References:
Dewey, J. (1997). Experience and education. New York: Touchstone.
Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because "reflection-in-action is the illuminating light of reason that penetrates the innermost reccess of the body" (Kinsella, 2006). Kinsella (2006) suggest that Schon believes that person can create his or her own world as apposed to a single world that is fixed or found. Through this created world, "it is possible to discover the consequences of one's moves, make inferences, and establish by experiement whether one's way of framing the situation is indeed appropriate" (Kinsella, 2006). As adults, we take part in this process everyday. We often times reflect over decisions we have made to see how we could have made it better. Especially if it turns out to be a really bad decision. Sometimes, we can reflect upon such decision and make a complete turn-around of the outcome.
References:
Kinsella, E.A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schon's theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286.
I would like to also add, from a personal viewpoint, that I give my students feedback as often as I possibly can. I believe that feedback is a great teaching tool that allows the students to reflect on past experiences. Reflections allows them to utilize prior knowledge, and formulate new ideas through predicting, reasoning, and inferencing.
Myrtle,
Thank you for your response. You did an excellent job with your explanation and defending of your theory. I greatly helps me understand the theory you are discussing.
Jennifer
Hi Nilda,
I agree that the use of portfolios would help stimulate reflective learning! Providing a source for the learner to examine, reflect and edit previously learned information with new information is a great way to add depth to the learning process. I also like to offer students a time for small group discussion about specific topics. This gives the student a chance to view the discussion from another point of view. Did you discover any other methods to stimulating the reflective learning processes? I appreciated reading your post!
Carol V. Kreitner
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because adults, having lived longer than children, possess a wider range of life experience. There are on the job experiences, raising families, and experiences from working in their communities. These provide opportunities to learn through reflection. As according to Mezirow (2000), there are three types of reflections. They are content reflection, which is thinking about the actual experience, process reflection, which is thinking about ways to deal with the experience, and premise reflection, which is examining the pre-conditioned assumptions and values of the experience.
The important aspect here is to note that it is not sufficient just having the experience for learning to occur. It’s working the experience through in your mind afterwards that leads to the learning and change. Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1985, 1996) devised a model that consists of three stages, which include, returning and replaying the experience, attending to the feeling that the experience provoked, and reevaluating the experience. The last stage of the model is where the reflection comes about but the emphasis has to be on the second stage where the feelings are stirred.
Schon (1987) also supports the idea of reflective learning. He states, “we think critically about the thinking that got us into this fix or this opportunity; and we may, in the process, restructure strategies of action, understanding of phenomena, or ways of framing problems” (Schon, 1987, p. 28). Jarvis (1987, 2001) is also a proponent of reflective learning. He has two main ideas on learning from our experiences. There is the non-reflective learning where we remember the experience and keep repeating it or just follow orders. But there is also the reflective learning where we “plan, monitor, and reflect upon the experiences” (p. 52). This is the most crucial aspect to adult learning.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S. & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood (3rd ed.), John Wiley & Sons.
Reflective Learning Theory best explains why adults learn because it is constructivist in nature. As a result, reflective learning theory embodies the idea that adults learn by constructing meaning, which is a reflective process. Adults have a variety of experiences, when they reflect on them; new knowledge is constructed as a result of the reflection (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007).
Another dimension of reflective learning theory is Polanyi’s tacit knowledge (Kinsella, 2007). Schon refers to it as knowing-in-action (Kinsella). Knowing-in-action is the ability to intelligently respond to spontaneous situations. However, in a process of reflection it is possible to discover the root of knowledge that contributed to our response or action. One may also argue that the reflection-knowing-in-action process is simultaneous.
Educators are adult learners which require a significant amount of reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action in order to educate today’s youth. Reflection-on-action is required in evaluating lessons, formative assessments, and summative assessments. On an hourly basis many teaches re-evaluate a lesson previously taught in order to improve understanding for students. Reflection-in-action enables teachers to revise lessons as they are being taught and answer questions from their students. It also gives them the ability to devise new ways of teaching individual students that are having difficulty and answer spontaneous questions. Educators in an effort to build their expertise use reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action (Merriam, et al., 2007).
References
Kinsella, E.A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice.
Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(3). 399.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide. Jossey-Bass.
HI NILDA:
First of all I really want to thank you for such well thought-out piece of discussion. I for once, have a better understanding of the reflective theory. I found you said, “The major significance of reflective learning resides in its capacity to provide the individual with insight that leads the learner to make generalizations and draw conclusions about the new knowledge.” This is a clear proposition of how the learning process materializes. Nevertheless, there are some things in the standpoints, presented by Wellington and Austin’s that question the values and beliefs hold by the theory practitioner and their five step “filter”(Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 173). As an educator, I become I firm believer in the influence that we have upon our students; and therefore, in order to better understand our students, we need to have a broader thinking spam and a more flexible set of mores, values and beliefs, probably a mix of Wellington and Davis viewpoints & Freire’s theory of the oppressed. Can you share your thoughts on Wellington and Davis’s view points about the take that educator different beliefs and values may have on how the implement this theory take?
Again, thank you for your observations, Héctor
lhemmila,
In response:
When learners interact in situations and develop their own activities for instance, to solve a problem, reflection involves being aware of the process by which they develop the activity and to take this process as the object of their thinking. Reflection involves reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of the experience. The reflective activity also involves the perception of relationships and the connections between the parts of the experience and provides opportunities for them to be actively engaged in what they are learning(Boud et al. 1996).
According to (Dewey, 1960), reflection includes observation the moment a learner begins to reflect he begins of necessity to observe in order to take stock of conditions. A good teacher guides students in the process of learning so that students have an understanding of how to approach the subject and actually learn,
(a deep learning approach), instead of just memorizing), a (surface approach).
I do believe that all students experience reflection at various levels, some more than others, as we all hold varying beliefs formed from our experiences which influence behavior. To ensure that all students experience reflection to a measure as to the depth of their reflection to me would be immearsurable. However, there may be approaches to facilitate deeper learning in the classroom, which we are currently experiencing in our class such as:
The encouragement of faculty/
student interaction and
student/student interaction.
Freedom in learning, making links with what students already know to encourage a sense of structure, being receptive and flexible, clear goals and standards, social climate, vocational relevance, and linking course topics to student lives and career aspirations.
Boud D., Keogh R. and Walker D.(1996). What is reflection in learning. In Boud, D., Keogh, R. & Walker, D. eds., Reflection: turning experience into learning. Kogan Page: London, 7-17.
Dewey, John (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: D. C. Heath
I would like to address the following question asked by Pam:
3. What methods could be used to teach this reflection process to these reluctant students?
First of all, if experience is going to be an integral part of one's learning process there has to be a way to connect what one has learned in the past with what is being learned in the present. This connector is reflective learning.
This coming term I plan to introduce reflective practice to my Chinese students in the form of journal writing, much as it is done in the Walden classes. I will begin by discussing this with the class and offering examples of how to do it. Each week the student will write about what they have learned in response to a prompt. Because there are large classes I will not be able to review every journal on a weekly basis, but I will reply at least once in a month.
I don't think that reflective learning has to be limited by cultural boundries because personal reflection is not confined to a particular culture.
The Transformative Learning Theory best explains why adults learn because it refers to how existing knowledge and experience is changed by new information and/or experiences. “It is transformative learning theory that explains this learning process of constructing and appropriating new and revised interpretations of the meaning of an experience in the world” (Taylor, 2008, p. 5).
When I am engaged in a learning experience, my knowledge is much stronger when I have past experiences or knowledge to use as scaffolding. “It is when an axon grows and meets up with another neuron that learning occurs. This explains why adult students need consideration of their prior experiences. Adults need to connect new information with old information” (Cercone, 2006, p. 297). This corresponds with Transformative Learning Theory.
References:
Sorensen, E. K., & Murchu, D. O. (Eds). (2006). Enhancing learning through technology. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.
Taylor, E. W. (2008). Transformative learning theory. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education. (119), 5-15.
Michele Denton
OOPS, I was suppose to put this on the blog for Transformative Learning Theory. Sorry if I messed up your flow.
Michele Denton
Hi MaryJane, I would like to address your comments about instructors not saying "I'm sorry". I find this is true in many professional scenarios, and onen thing I do as a director of faculty is to first identify that it has occured then approach the person to help find a way that the apology can be given and face is still saved. It of course depends on the scenario; if it is student oriented where faculty gave misinformation, it is often best to make that a teachable moment for students and faculty to show that we can all learn from mistakes. If it is more agregious, and involves peer faculty I actually take the role of impartial mediator to help them find common ground. It is a practice of reflection to be able to apologise and recognize fallibility. And sometimes we just need to be reminded of that. Teri Gwin
Felicia,
Your response for Reflective Learning Theory has such a positive sound to it. I think that when you add reflective thinking into teaching even the very young children, you are helping to develop critical thinking. I also think that instead of the teacher being the only one in the room that is knowledgable, the student now has knowledge also. The teacher is there to help each individual build on that.
What do you think about what age is appropriate for introducing reflective learning?
Michele Denton
Hi Felicity,
First of all I would like to say I enjoyed reading your post. For many of us, change is good becuase it leads to better understandings of issues and life. Through reading your blog post, it made me "reflect" on my topic of transformative learning, as reflection is a factor for transformative learning to occur. Throughout history,it is know that peolpe are resistant to change, for the fear of the unknown. However reflective learning offers a us some much more. It gives us a chance to place things in perspective. You discuss self- awareness.
While this type of learning does allow self-awareness, does it really mean that because we take the time to reflect on problems, issues, or just life that we actually develop a sense of self awareness and make positive changes?
I am really concerned about that factor. As I think of rehablitated criminals, they have years and years to think about what caused them to be incarcerated in the first place, but many end up back in the same situation.
Also let's take into account divorce. After a divorce, we assume that both parties reflect and that they have learned something from the marriage. But for many they turn around remarry and the same issues pop up again. So my question remains does reflection lead to self -awareness and if so, does it always produce a positive change?
Janelle,
How is reflective learning used to assist students in orientation? Upon what do they reflect?
Thanks,
Sharon Luke
The theory best works explains why adults learn because Schon has demonstrated how this theory works best in the professional setting. I have to admit, after first skimming Embodied Reflection and the Epistemology of Reflective Practice, I did not easily grasp Schon’s reflective theory. However, after further reading I was able to grasp this theory. Schon’s reflective theory has been viewed as an exploration of “thinking on your feet.” For some, especially in our work environment, this can be a usual occurrence. Schon explains that a person may react to a certain situation, knowing or unknowingly, by using past experiences. For example, a woman walking down a street notices a person approaching her in a hurried and threatening way. The woman reacts by screaming and jumping up and down, drawing attention to her. The person approaching her in a threatening way notices others noticing her. He then walks the other way. In this particular scenario, the woman remembered as a child that if you want immediate attention to yell “fire” (in this case, she just acted a fool). This brings us to Schon’s “implicit knowledge”, also known as “tacit knowledge”.
In Theory in Practice, the terms ‘implicit knowledge’ is taken to mean that ‘we know more that we can tell and more than our behavior consistently shows’ (Argyris and Schon, 1992, p. 10). Argyris and Schon further describe tacit knowledge as “what we display when we recognize one face from thousands without being able to say how we do so, when we demonstrate a skill for which we cannot state an explicit program, or when we experience the intimation of a discovery we cannot put into words’ (ibid.) (Kinsela, p. 397).
Once the person reacts to a situation using their past experiences, they may assess the outcome to determine if it could have been handled differently or used a different approach. Schon refers to this as “reflection-in-action.” By using past experiences, assessing the outcome of the behavior, it is used as a learning tool and provides an on-going learning process. For example, a manager experiences an irate client who is upset with the customer service that an employee provided. The manager intervenes, smiles and talks in a soothing voice to the irate customer. The customer now changes his tone and calms down. After the incident, the manager and the employee look back at the incident to make an assessment to see if the situation was handled properly or if it could have been handled differently. This is known as reflection-in-action.
It has been noted that Schon’s reflective theory has influences of constructivism. Meichenbaum (1995), stated, “The constructivist perspective is founded on the idea that humans actively construct their personal realities and create their own representational models of the world’ (p. 23). Furthermore, Dewey postulated that “all genuine education comes about through experience” (p. 13) (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, p. 162). This brings us to Schon’s reflective theory that knowledge is inherent as we utilize our experiences to form outcomes. From the outcome, we assess it and use it as a learning tool.
References:
Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide.
San Fancisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kinsella, E. A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schon’s theory of reflective practice:
Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), pp. 277-286.
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of
Philosophy of Education, 41(1). pp. 395-409.
Hi Mary@Walden,
Thank you for your thorough post regarding the reflective theory and particularly your information on "reflection in-action" and "reflection on-action". It sounds quite similar to the information on critical reflection in regard to the transformative or transformational learning process. Mezirow (2000) explains three types of reflection: content reflection, process reflection, and premise reflection. I can see that these could be very similar to the "in-action" and "on-action" reflection in the reflective theory. Did you find this also to be true? Do you find that the reflective theory in itself is a bit more shallow that the transformative theory because it neglects other more holistic elements, such as experience and development?
Once again, thank you for your comments. It did help me understand the reflective theory,and raised some questions for me as it relates to some of Mezirow's work.
Matt Ryan,
I agree with your comments regarding the reflective process teachers experience. My company will often pilot a training program prior to rolling it out to all employees. The benefit of this is the fact that we can learn what went well and what did not. We can them make changes to the course so that we can provide the best educational experience possible for our students. Thanks for sharing your experiences.
Kim Brown
Janelle,
I agree with you on addressing the needs of tranfer students who typically tend to be older adult students. Their menaing of new information is based on that they already know blended with only relevant information that you can provide. They will not be intersted as the 18-21 year old in spirit activities and socail functions.
Hi, Lorna,
I appreciate your in-depth discussion of reflective learning theory. Your description of thinking-in-action reminds me of metacognition (thinking about thinking), which is employed through critical thinking. Your summary helped me to realize that this act of reflection is already encapsulated in transformative learning theory, which I was asked to defend. Thank you for presenting this argument!
Mary
To Lorna
Very good post. After read your post I understood that theory, I had the same issue when read the theory at first. You had a good example that trigger my thinking about the theory. In some way it is true that we learn by reflection and through an internal process.
My only concern is the fact that if I had bad experiences when a new experience come my reflection will be based on those bad once. How we can avoid the use of the bad experiences to do a well define reflective process?
KProft,
Allowing flexibility in the design of a lesson will permit student input on issues that need to be addressed in a class.
Chandra...
I have a question and a comment. When is it suggested to start teaching students how to be academically reflective? My middle school students can reflect to some degree socially and personally but very few reflective skills academically unless prompted.
My comment is that it would be wonderful if you would include references so that others who may be researching this topic could use some of the reference materials you have sited in your post.
Joel...
You write about how if an activity doesn't work you don't repeat it again. Because it doesn't work with one group of people, does that mean it won't work with any gruop of people? As a teacher, we all know that class groups vary dramatically from year to year and it depends on the make up of a group how you teach that situation. I know there are years when I do not attempt certain instructional projects because I feel the group cannot handle the task at hand. So in this instance would it be reflective learning if an instructor learned to gauge the group dynamics before trying a lesson again that had previously flopped?
Amanda,
Thanks so much for your comments! You are absolutely correct when you mentioned that groups of students are different and what might not work with one group may actually work with another one. I have noticed that I can have a tendency to act too much on instinct and not on reflection when it comes to how I plan various classroom activities. In my mind I remember how bad I felt when an activity failed miserably and just assume that it will do so again if I try it, thus deciding not to initiate it. Instructors must reflect on past experiences when it comes to evaluating their current instructional methodologies. If they don't, I feel they will get stagnate. Like you mentioned, instructors must also "feel out" the dynamics of a new class in order to predict whether an activity may or may not work. Reflective action is equally important for instructors as it is for students. Thanks again for your comments!
Joel
KProft,
You refer to students learning from mistakes and the importance of a safe learning environment. What kinds of things do you do to ensure that the learning environment is safe?
--Gina
Peg Erdman Said...
Chandra,
I absolutely agree with your post and am a great fan of reflective learning, but for purposes of this post I must ask a question. I have young adults in my classroom who have received good grades during their primary and secondary education. Now suddenly they are placed in a college classroom where the expectations are greater, the material more dense, and the time to learn much shorter. Many of my students are parents, employees and students. So my question is this: Can we expect our students to be truly reflective in an environment where they don't have enough time to memorize let alone reflect? I struggle with this every day, and would love to hear some feedback. Thank you for your post. Peg Erdman
From Linda Hemmila,
To Cheryl :
I agree with you. Mind and body work together. I have often seen this situation when people are critically ill. I also see it in the clinical setting with nursing students and how they respond to certain situations.
From Linda Hemmila
To Mrytle Brown
I agree, depth of learning is immeasureable. I think to some extent we as facilitators have to ensure the reflection process is occurring and learning is taking place with individual students.
In the classroom, we might have to initiate a grading system similar to our online discussion grading criteria. Do feel that would be a way to measure reflection and learning?
To Lorna,
I enjoyed reading your comments about reflective theory. It further reinforced what I had learned while researching transformative learning. Reflection is the key to successful in depth leaning. I liked your explanation about development and reflection in action. It reminded me of P. Benner's nursing theory "From Novice to Expert". Benner describes the "expert" nurse as one who knows when someone is getting worse, even before the labs or monitors begin to reveal the decline. The nurse has seen previous cases, reflected on them and made them part of her knowledge base. Reflection is the key to becoming a true expert. Thanks again for a great post. Peg Erdman
From Linda Hemmila
To Teri Gwinn
I agree individuals can be reflective and not be transformed. I do it myself. Things to think about in the classroom where we are using reflective methodologies. Does reflection with transformation need to occur in the learning situation? How does this apply to the classroom? How do we prevent this from happening and how do we help the students who can not reflect and transform?
From Linda Hemmila
To Teri Gwinn
I agree individuals can be reflective and not be transformed. I do it myself. Things to think about in the classroom where we are using reflective methodologies. Does reflection with transformation need to occur in the learning situation? How does this apply to the classroom? How do we prevent this from happening and how do we help the students who can not reflect and transform?
From Bob Schwallie
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because all of us have a vast amount of experiences that we draw upon and use to make decisions every day of our lives. Depending on our ages some of us have more experiences we can relate to than others. This doesn’t mean the more experience we have the more reflective we are. However according (Kolb, 1984.) all of us must have a willingness to involve ourselves in new experiences and use reflective observation to create concrete experience and start the learning cycle over again. In plan words (my own) you must reflect on these experiences to determine what you will take away and use.
Three other theories that relate to reflective learning and using our experiences to learn from is reflective practice, reflection on action, and reflection in action. The reflective practice theory described by (York-Barr, Sommers, Ghere, & Montie, 2001) is a “deliberate pause to assume an open perspective, to allow for higher-level thinking processes. Actions may involve changes in behavior, skills, attitudes, or perspectives within an individual, partner, small group, or school”. (p. 6).
The reflection-on-action theory simply states we think through a situation after it happens. How many times have we either made a mistake or did better than we expected and thought over what actions we take for this to happen. What could we have done differently to make this better?
Finally, if we look at reflection-in-action which (Schon, 1987) explains is when we are “thinking on our feet” and “keeping your wits about you”. (p. 28). We can see this type of thinking is derived from our experience and reflective learning. Have there ever been a case when you were driving and you had another driver make a mistake and you had to react to avoid a collision. I am certain you didn’t take several minutes to think what you needed to do. You changed your driving almost instantly to keep yourself safe. That is reflection-in-action.
Bob Schwallie
References:
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experimental Learning: Experience as the source of learning and Development. In Merriam, B. S., Cafarella, S. R., Baumgarnter. M. L, Learning in Adulthood, Chapter 11, Traditional Learning Theories, (pp. 159-186) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
York-Barr, J., Sommers, W. A., Ghere, G. S., &Montie, J. (2001). Reflective practice to improve schools: An action guide for educators. In Merriam, B. S., Cafarella, S. R., Baumgarnter. M. L, Learning in Adulthood, Chapter 11, Traditional Learning Theories, (pp. 159-186) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Schon, D. A. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner. In Merriam, B. S., Cafarella, S. R., Baumgarnter. M. L, Learning in Adulthood, Chapter 11, Traditional Learning Theories, (pp. 159-186) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Robyn York,
I like the close of your post and how it shows the interconnectivity between all three of these theories. It reminds me of the old riddle of which came first...the chicken or the egg...
Can any of these three theories exist or function without experiences??? without reflection or thinking on the experiences??? If an adult learner does reflect on their experience and thus learns, can they avoid being "transformed" in some way???
What makes sense to me is that we should be looking for theory and the practical application of it to inform our practice as educators from a more global perspective. Instead of trying to fit ourselves into one of these theories or declare one of them to be the true Adult Learning Theory of all time, I prefer to take what I can from many of them and try to make myself a better insturctor for my students. The more diversified we can become, perhaps the more students we can reach?
Gordon
Matt, you mentioned, “We, as educators, go through the reflective process of learning on a daily basis.” (2008). You also address how you implement reflective practice with your student in your classroom to teach geometry. However, I am interested in know how you personally, as a teacher, implement reflective learning? Brockbank, confirms that as teachers, “Whether trained as a teacher or not, the teacher (and student) engages in reflective practice”, (pg. 87).
Most teachers engage in casual personal reflective practice to improve the quality of their teaching while other teachers rely on the feedback provided by more formal and structured methods to drive their personal improvement processes.
I have seen teachers who do not have formal training in educational theory still use some modicum of reflective practice, even if they aren’t aware of the formal name or process. These teachers engage in reflective practice out of self-interest for general purposes of self-improvement as well as the quality of teaching that they deliver.
Do you follow a formal process for personal reflective practice like you implement with your students or do you practice a more casual form of reflective practice?
References
Brockbank, A. & McGill, I. (2007). Facilitating Reflective Learning in Higher Education. The Society for Research into Higher Education, McGraw Hill, NY, (2nd, ed.).
Ryan, Matt, (2008). Reflective Learning Theory Blog. Retrieved February 8, 2009 from https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=8644452486233456758&postID=9075832647185104463
Mary,
You write that "Reflection-in-action teaches adults how to interpret information been given to them in an immediate situation and then assists them with processing it and turning around to use in the same encounter." How do you feel, then, about the role of the teacher? It seems that the job of teaching the student how to interpret information and assisting him/her with processing it gives a tremendous amount of responsibility, not to mention power, to the teacher. Do you think that Reflective Learning theorists adequately deal with this?
-Dorothy Garcia
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it is characterized by profound attentive reflection and thoughts. The opposite would simply imply that the level of learning is knowledge according to Bloom’s Taxonomy. A reflective learner relates terms and concepts utilizing analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Through analysis one examines and relates information learned. Synthesis allows one to plan, propose, and rewrite concepts being learned. Based on learned information, an adult learner critic, prioritizes, and concludes what information is useful in constructing, evaluating, and developing their educational plan.
Reflective learning recognizes the wisdom of adults to personalize information and based on prior experiences and knowledge, then internalizes the information and makes it relevant to their present point of view. Adult learners tend to use metacognition which helps them be successful learners and has been associated with intelligence (e.g., Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987; Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. A adult learner’s behavior toward a given learning task, monitoring understanding, and evaluating advancement toward the achievement of an undertaking all including using metacognition. Adult learners are successful using cognitive skills because they are reflective learners. Ertmer and Newby (1996) affirm that metacognition facilitate the deliberate performance of adult learners and that reflection provides the vital connection linking knowledge and control of the learning process.
Reflection is a critical part of the learning process that occurs all throughout the learning process.
Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals; pp. 201-207 Susan Fauer Company, Inc.
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1996). The expert learner: Strategic, self-regulated, and reflective. Instructional Science, 24(1), 1-24.
Merriam, S. B., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: Comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sorenson, E. K. (Editor). Enhancing Learning Through Technology. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/waldenu/Doc?id=10118565&ppg=341
Mary,
I use reflective logs in the classroom for two purposes. The first is to ensure the student reflects and secondly to ensure the students write across the curriculm.
Do you see this as a meaningful pursuit?
rory
In response to Matt Ryan
Hi Matt
I appreciate your perspective on sharing reflective techniques as well as your practical examples. We know from Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) that reflective learning is a type of experiential learning (the other type being nonreflective learning. Hence, the lines between the two types of learning—experiential and reflective—can be somewhat “blurred.”
That said, in your posting, you discussed how you form you students into groups so that they can relate their past experience to the material you are teaching. Help me to better understand why this example is reflective theory and not experiential theory.
Thank you
Barry Lease
Reference
Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Hi Robyn
You said, "Without reflective learning, transformation and experiences would not hold as great value in learning". I couldn't agree more. Everything I've read in this course has lead me to believe, in the words of the song. "you can't have one without the other". I think good instructors should use whatever method or combination of methods work the best in their own unique situations.
M
Hi Ronald,
Great post and thank you for sharing it. I enjoyed reading about the reflective theory. I agree with you about the fact that memorization must be rejected in order to be a reflective learner. As a parent,it is for this reason that I have a hard time with SOLs (that is what the standards of learning tests are called in Virginia). I think it is a shame to have the students memorize and memorize just for those tests. I wonder sometimes if effective learning is truly occurs during this time. I think engaging students is so much more effective than just drilling the information into them for the standardized testing. What are your thoughts on this?
Lisa Minor
Hi Matt Ryan.
I enjoyed your post on Reflective Learning. And I understand the reflective comments regarding your students. However, would you agree that it was the experience of your students which allowed you to reflect not only on how they performed; but also how to address and/or enhance their performance?
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because reflective learning is the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective.
Reflective learning has six components related to the process of reflective learning. They are as follows: self-examination, estimate if it is effective, give birth to questions, analyze the difficulties and the gaps, strategies, and evaluate if it is effective.
Reflective is an ongoing process in which participants in a situation take time to examine their experiences, to think how things might be different, to think through these possibilities and to try out what seems to be the best option. For example, when staff members are working on a project for their school, they go through all these processes. They have a goal in mind and they are looking for the best way to approach it and create it. They look at where we are now, brainstorm ideas with questions, analyze what problems they foresee, and then they evaluate the plan to see if it will be effective. Reflective learning is a process which involves dialogue with others for improvement or transformation of the emotional, social, and political context of the learner.
The concept of teaching as reflection-in-action refers to the preceptor's thinking about the teaching/ learning process or problem-solving teaching/learning situations while directly engaged in teaching. The concept of teaching as reflection-in-action refers to the preceptor's thinking about the teaching/ learning process or problem-solving teaching/learning situations while directly engaged in teaching.
The concept of teaching as teaching reflection-in-action refers to the educators thinking about the teachin /learning process or problem-solving/learning situations while directly engaged in the learning process. Reflection-in-action teaches us how to understand information that has been given to us at a given time and then it assists us with the processing of the information.
Mary
Reflective learning personal responsibility and accountability. In addition, this type of learning requires "active processing of thoughts" (Merriam,Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007,p173). Do you believe that all adult learners are capable of this just because they are adults?
It is my opinion that those who learn this way are highly analytical and emotionally mature learners. I am honestly not sure whether a freshman in college -also an adult learner- is psychologically prepared to learn this way. What arena do think reflective learning is best suited for?
Serena Huggins
Merriam,S., Caffarella, R., and Baumgartner, L. (2007) Learning in adulthood, a comprehensive guide. San Francisco:Joley-Bass.
to Dedmond R...
I agree that reflective learning can be a powerful tool in learning. Do you find that you must help your learners to critically reflect on their experiences or do you find they do it on their own. I can see how learners can connect past expereinces to new learning, but I think often they do not reflect on previous learning until a new and relevant situation occurs. I think reflection is most powerful when learners are reminded or guided to reflect on all learning so that new learning can begin immediately.
What do you think?
Greetings Chandra
Thank you for your interesting posting. I found your posting to be informative and interesting. I can appreciate the model of reflection you provided that described a technique used in nursing education but can also be applied in various other domains. While I do agree that some adults would learn best using reflective theory techniques, I am not convinced that this technique would be universally successful in all learning environments to achieve educational outcomes.
What topics or areas of instruction do you feel that reflective learning techniques may not work as effective as other techniques? Are teachers provided special training techniques in order to apply reflective practices? Even though using reflective learning techniques theoretically should result in successful learning outcomes, Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner (2007) related that this may not be the case depending upon the beliefs and practices of the teacher. The teacher must offer an orientation to reflective practice that is conducive to an effective learning experience for the students.
Van (SLG)
Reference
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hi Michelle:
You point out some interesting facts/concepts when defending the reflection theory. I want to challenge the following comments (underlined):
Synthesis allows one to plan, propose, and rewrite concepts being learned. Based on learned information, an adult learner concludes what information is useful …….
Reflective learning recognizes the wisdom of adults to personalize information and based on prior experiences and knowledge, then internalizes the information and makes it relevant to their present point of view.
Ertmer and Newby (1996) affirm that metacognition facilitate the deliberate performance of adult learners and that reflection provides the vital connection linking knowledge and control of the learning process………
Based on those concepts (underlined) it seems as if the reflection theory allows the adult learner to stay ”closed in a box.” I come to this conclusion based on my understanding that while the adult learner is only making use of information that he/she deems useful, relevant, and the idea that the reflection theory provides control of the learning process. This leads me to think that the adult learner would not be open to new ideas nor allowed to think critically which is an important learning skill to exhibit in adulthood, especially in higher learning (graduate school). Brookfield (1987, chap. 5) explains that effective critical thinking strategies would allow for identifying and challenging assumptions, and exploring alternative ways of thinking and acting; diversity and divergence would be accepted and encouraged; and flexibility of format and direction, openness and critical analysis would be used in the learning environment. With this in mind I conclude that the reflection theory is more useful in childhood when learners are simply asked to use their memorization and recall skills (learning only what is useful), no critical thinking is expected.
How would you further clarify or defend your stand on the reflective theory?
Or….
How would you disagree with my criticism of the reflective theory?
MiaT
Reference:
Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. San Francisco, Ca: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Felecia,
I appreciate how you captured the essence of the Reflective learning theory in your posting. As a critical reader of this learning theory, there seems to be two aspects that I would challenge as an adult educator. First, learning how to effectively reflect on past experiences may involve more psychological training then actual adult education. Not many people are skilled enough to think back to a past experience and reflect to where they are able to choose a better path. Second, true reflection can take some time. Placing a limit seems necessary but defeats the purpose.
Gordon,
It was significant that in your post you recognized how Robyn was able to marry and connect each theory at the end of her post. In the popular higher education book, Developing Critical Thinkers (1987) by Stephen D. Brookfield, he states that a theory is just that a theory. Brookfield explains that a singular model should not set the foundation for how we teach under the umbrella of higher education.
As a strong supporter of the Transformative learning theory I subsequently can see the benefit in understanding the “why” in the reflective theory as well. Kolb (1984) highlights conceptualized learning occurs via four different kinds of abilities:
1. An openness and willingness to involve oneself in new experiences
2. Observational and reflective also called reflective observation
3. Integration of ideas through analytical and abstract conceptualization
4. Decision-making and problem solving skills; active experimentation
As a professor of nursing we teach all of our students to start with the technique of assessment and we encourage reassessment for accuracy. It is clear that in each model the theorists attempt to reach the same outcome, a transverse learning experience that will ultimately yield social change. I concur that the more engaged we are as instructors about learning diverse theories in higher education the end result will mirror reaching more students.
References:
Brookfield, S.D. (1987). Developing Critical Thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experimental Learning: Experience as the source of learning and Development. In Merriam, B. S., Cafarella, S. R., Baumgarnter. M. L, Learning in Adulthood, Chapter 11, Traditional Learning Theories, (pp. 159-186) San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Hi Janelle Simmons:
It seems as if the reflective theory is focused on the individual person, their knowledge and experiences. Even with the example you gave of students using journaling as a strategy to allow for reflective learning suggests that the whole person is considered. As you have indicated this would be great for professional development (individual development) and would allow the opportunity to display “keeping your wits about you”(Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007, pp 176).
What role would a coach (educator) play in ensuring that an adult learner with regards to the reflective theory is using their individuality to work well as a team player valuing the diversity of others in a group setting?
Reference:
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
MiaT
Reflective learning is a valuable tool in nursing education. It is a component of critical thinking and contains its emotive part (Brookfield, 1987). Allowing for and encouraging learners to reflect upon experiences in their learning process applies their emotional intelligence to this learning (Cherniss, C., Extein, M., Goleman, D, & Weissberg, R., 2006). It is this learning which will be the most meaningful to that learner and the best retained.
All nurses have had moments in their development which were more meaningful to them due to the events’ impact upon their emotional intelligence. For example, throughout my nursing career I have cared for many patients, most I would never remember. Yet, in my own professional development I have had my experiences with a few patients burned into my memory due to the emotional aspects of their situations. Mildred, a chronic lung disease patient, I will never forget because she called all the nurses “doll-baby” like my own grandmother did. This emotional connection between a clinical experience and my own personal experiences is a powerful one.
In the post-hiring education of new-to-practice (NTP) critical care nurses, reflective learning is a part of their entire classroom and clinical orientation experience. We have reflective journaling as an expectation of the new-to-practice critical care nurse. Through their journal writings, they will further process their experiences in this orientation period, describing and reacting to clinical and classroom events. How they emotively react to these events determines their impact upon these nurses and what they take from the experiences.
Journaling offers NTP nurses the opportunity, through reflection, of availing themselves of those “aha!” moments of insight and of the ability to see their own progress along their professional development journey. This reflection on one’s own progress is of high value to the nurses’ professional self-image. For so many weeks they have learned and have had what they don’t know pointed out to them, yet now at this milestone of rereading what they had written surprises many on just how far they have advanced.
References
Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing critical thinkers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 14-36.
Cadman, C. & Brewer, J. (2001). Emotional intelligence: a vital prerequisite for recruitment in nursing. Journal of Nursing Management, 9, 321-324.
Cherniss, C., Extein, M., Goleman, D, & Weissberg, R. (2006). Emotional Intelligence: What Does the Research Really Indicate? Educational psychologist, 41(4), 239–245.
Hello Felecia,
I would like to add to your comments that reflection by the students encourages the student to participate in the learning process. My experience as an adult learner was that whenever I was able to write a reflection on what I learned it forced me to analyze my strong areas as well as made me aware of areas that I needed grow.
In addition, from a teacher point of view, having students reflect on their learning, it provides me with an idea of the students' perspective of what they learned versus what my intentions of what they needed to learn. It provides for a comfortable environment where there is no wrong or right answer for their reflections and many times most of the students do formulate their own conclusions.
Héctor,
I agree with Wellington and Austin in that as teachers our beliefs and values can influence our choice of reflective activities. Teaching is all about being true to whom you are and what you believe in, but not at the cost of using the “power” or authority we may have as educators to deliberately seek to modify others’ views. Teaching must be about respect. For me, the individual is more important than the system. Through reflective practice, adult learners can transform their thinking and ultimately their circumstances – if they choose to do so. My personal application of the theory relates to the deliberative orientation stated by the scholars. I try to help students discover what learning means to them.
Nilda
Hi Shari,
I have used a goal statement activity that provides for some reflection regarding the students' objectives for the course and the struggles they may face during the semester. Students start the assignment during the first week of class and after a few weeks, they can read what they wrote and see where they are in terms of the plan they set up to overcome obstacles. By revisiting the goal statement and objectives, they see purpose in learning, and they also get a chance to evaluate and modify the strategies they stated during the first week, if necessary.
Take care,
Nilda
Janell:
I appreciate on post on reflective learning theory in relation to professional development. In education an underlying assumption is that all educators reflect on educational practices.
I like the thought of formalizing professional development around dialogue and critical reflection activities.
On a different note, I believe reflective learning theory fails to account for the cognitive aspect of the learning process. While , I certainly see the value in reflection, it seems to work better as a compliment rather than a stand alone theory.
Chandra. Great post. Your points of awareness, critical analysis, and new perspective on a teacher's reflection is most valuable when a lesson does not go well and at times painful, especially when lesson plans were well made and expectations were high. I think reflecting and learning to be flexible with knowledge and insight gained through experience are a teachers greatest resource.
Doris Holland says,
Mary,
What area are you applying your post to? I wonder if this is applicable to learning math?
Good post.
Doris Holland says,
Ted, your post was interesting and informative. This concept of reflective journalizing is a good concept. Maybe this needs to be done in education, especially with new teachers.
Was there a particular situation that brought about this idea of reflective journaling?
Tony thanks for asking the question.
Yes, it was active and conscious process of thoughts. My action was spontaneously. I cannot explain it. Schon (1983) stated that our knowing is ordinarily tacit, implicit in our patterns of action and in our feel for the stuff with which we are dealing (p. 49).
Reference
Schon, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. United State of America: Basic Books.
To Greta,
As I was reading your post on reflective learning, I was struck by how much of this type of "learning" I used as a therapist in sessions with adults. As one can imagine, for therapy to be effective it requires a lot of reflection and insight... Insight often gained through the act of reflection itself.
I can certainly understand, from many of the posts, how reflective learning is being applied in many classroom with adults. However, for me it was easiest to understand this type of learning through my experience as a Psychologist. Helping others to understand their actions, the result of these actions, and how they can choose to do something differenty to change their circumstances. To work with adults to help them grow emotionally, mentally, socially through self-examination can be very powerful. They come into sessions with knowledge and experience, but learn to examine their actions and think critically to see how they can move toward a certain goal. These goals include everything from "being happy" to "overcoming depression" to "controlling anger" to "becoming better parents", etc.
Even though many people do not automatically think of therapy as a true learning situation, I certainly believe it is.
As an educator I regretfully admit that reflective learning is not utilized as much as it should be in k-12 education. I think that many of my students would benefit from various reflective learning strategies. In my opinion, reflective learning best explains why adults learn because it differentiates adult students learning styles from those of k-12 students.
As a K-12 educator my interpretation of reflective learning is different from the purposeful examples found in my research. Moon 2004, states that "reflective learning is, essentially, a purposeful framing and reframing of material in internal experience with the intention of learning. There is not necessarily an input of new material of learning" (p. 99). I agree with this definition, and it even justifies journaling as a reflective assignment. However, reflective learning should be a thought provoking process that provides students with a valuable learning experience (Moon, 2004, p. 100).
According to his book Outsmarting IQ, David Perkins (1995) asserts that very little of k-12 main stream educational strategies are aimed at eliciting critical thinking. Those students who are reflective gain it naturally or get it from parents who model reflective thinking practices at home (Given, 2002, p. 106). This ideology supports my opinion that reflective teaching in k-12 education needs to be altered. In addition, it makes me question including reflective thinking in my curriculum. Though I know the benefits are apparent, why utilize valuable class time to teach something that will be learned naturally at home.
Moon, J. A. (2004). A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning: Theory and Practice.
New York: Routledge.
Given, B. K. (2002). Teaching to the Brain's Natural Learning Systems. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Shafonda,
Do you believe that k-12 students in general are capable of reflective learning? I wonder if this might be too much for some young students.
Thomas,
I agree that K-2 may be a little young for reflective thinking. However, I require my 2 year to think about what she did when she misbehaves. Nevertheless, once a student has reached middle school (I teach 7th grade)they should be challenged to think more critically about daily experiences. Our state mandated test requires critical thinking yet our curriculum lacks it. I think that the low test scores prove that our curriculum should be more challening and should include more reflective learning elements.
Hello MiaT,
Good question. I think the role of the eudctaor would be to ensure that adult learners not only learn from their own experiences, but from the experiences of others. Group activities can help to facilitate this.
Hello Inez,
The more that I think about it, the more I see transformative learning theory and reflective learning theory working together. However, where I do see the difference is the role the educator plays. Transformative learning places a huge emphasis on mentoring. In reflective learning, the educator can still facilitate learning without serving as a mentor.
Hello Sharon Luke,
Reflective learning is used primarily with our transfer students due to the age of the population. They reflect on their prior experiences as a college student in order to understand our policies and procedures.
Our university has just developed a office that works primarily with transfer students; they visit many of the community colleges prior to orientation and give interactive workshops. With my office we develop strategies to assist them with making a seamless transition.
Doris Holland,
I am confident that Schon's theory of reflective learning could be used for math.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because in recent times, both nursing and teaching have sought to better develop and articulate those aspects of practice that might be described as being a part of their knowledge base. It is not surprising, then, that reflection continually emerges as a suggested way of helping practitioners better understand what they know and do as they develop their knowledge of practice through reconsidering what they learn in practice.
Reflection, then, places an emphasis on learning through questioning and investigation to lead to a development of understanding . Furthermore, there has been a recognition that reflection is important in sustaining one’s professional health and competence and that the ability to exercise professional judgment is in fact informed through reflection on practice. Hence, for those who see professional development partly as an emancipation of practice by learning through practice, reflection is indeed at the heart of the matter and equally valuable regardless of the profession.
The primary benefit of reflective practice for teachers is a deeper understanding of their own teaching style and ultimately, greater effectiveness as a teacher. Other specific benefits include the validation of a teacher's ideals, beneficial challenges to tradition, the recognition of teaching as artistry, and respect for diversity in applying theory to classroom practice. Freidus (1997) describes a case study of one teacher/graduate student struggling to make sense of her beliefs and practices about what constitutes good teaching. Her initial pedagogy for teaching was based on the traditions and practices of direct teaching. Her traditional socialization into teaching made it difficult for her to understand that her views of good teaching were being challenged in her practice. But the opportunity for exploration through reflective portfolio work enabled her to acknowledge and validate what she was learning
Freidus, H. (1997). The telling of story: Teachers knowing what they know. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), Chicago, IL. ED 409 274
Schon, D.A. (1996). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Gordon and Mary Buck -
You both hit the nail on the head! One cannot have experience without reflection or transformation, reflection without experience, or transformation without reflection or experience. The students sitting in your classroom each semester are a diverse set of individuals with differing needs and learning styles. As such, a global approach to many theories, not just one, is the best action an instructor can take in order to reach as many of those students as possible. Thank you for your comments and insights!
Robyn York
Peg Erdman said...
Emineke and MaryJane,
I really was reluctant to participate in this blog experience. I am a firm believer that too much of what we think is stored in the public domain when we participate in this type of discourse. Plus, I don't really know how to blog. But then I saw posting from both of you. I was glad to reconnect and hear from friends even if it is on a blog about learning theory. Keep in touch. Peg
RTapia
You have made an excellent argument for Reflective Theory. Confucius said: "I hear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and I understand." This sums up nicely Schon's theory of doing to learn. Thank you for your explanation.
Reflective learning practice is making sense of your own experiences, learning from them, evaluating, and creating new concepts. Boyd and Fales (1983 p. 100) defines reflective learning as “a process of internally examining and exploring an issues of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective.” Merriam et.al writes “reflective practice allows one to make judgments in complex and murky situations,” (2007 p. 172) sort of on the lines of Schӧns’ reflection-in-action which “reshapes what we are doing while we are doing it” (2007 p. 176).
Critically thinking about these definitions, I began to wonder how I have utilized reflective learning theory. One life experience was rearing my children. My first child, I read a lot, talk to experienced mothers, was extremely cautious regarding the care of my child, and made a lot of mistakes that caused great anxiety. When my second child was born, I began to rethink the process, evaluated what did and did not work and how I could decrease the anxiety of motherhood. As a result, I developed new processes that worked well. By the time I delivered my twins, I was an old pro at motherhood. This is what reflective learning theory, utilizing your own experiences, evaluating, and developing new concepts. How are instructors using this process in adult education?
Well it is apparent that reflective learning theory is a key factor of adult education as many adult learners pull from their personal experiences as a learning methodology. They identify their learning styles, how to learn, the need to learn and how to retain the information. Students who attend my language arts classes are from various backgrounds and are usually in class to learn or enhance their writing and reading abilities. They have been taught specific methods to learn and have found that with life experiences learning styles change. These students bring purpose to their learning and are in class as a result of a promotion, career change, or simple desire. Nonetheless, their longing is to increase their knowledge and ability to learn. What is the teachers’ role in assisting students in this process?
It is the instructors’ role to teach students how to critically think about learning, ask the right questions, research the answers, and take ownership of their learning. As an instructor of language arts, I urge students to make up their own minds about learning and what effects’ learning has on creating a more lucrative future. No education is not about making money however it [education] can determine how much money one can earn. Statistics show no education, less money earned; more education, more money earned. Let’s face it, there are not many of us that actually go through the grueling process of education; attending class, astronomical amount of reading, writing papers, and testing if there were not a reward at the end of the process. Our human race is all about sacrifice but in the end we want something in return.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Boyd, Evelyn M., Fales, Ann M. Reflective Learning: Key to Learning from Experience. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 23 No. 2, Spring 1983 99-117
There are few types of reflective theoretical activities; reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action are just a couple. Reflection-on-action occurs after an event has taken place, while reflection-in-action occurs during an activity (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007). Reflecting on an action allows us to store, relive and evaluate a problem based on past experiences. Reflecting in action occurs during and event, thus the term “thinking on your feet” (2007). This is also something we do everyday in activities such as driving. Although we are tempted to drive based on our past we are constantly reminded by the unpredictability of others that we must be ready to reflect-in-action. There are even times while driving that past knowledge from our driver education class will not provide us with a solution, which means that one must go beyond what they have learned to accomplish the goal of getting where they need to go.
Practitioners in action must be able to reflect-in-action and deal unpredictable situation by choosing multiple approaches to practice while creating tailored solutions to problems (Schon, 1983). “Professional proactive is a process of problem solving. Problems of choice or decisions are solved through the selection from available means of the one best suited to established ends” (as cited in Schon, 1983, p.40).
Mezirow introduces three types of reflective types; Content reflection, process reflection and premise reflection. Content is about the experience, process is about ways to deal and premise is about beliefs and values (2007). Most people go through all of these forms of reflecting, however depending on a person’s experiences and influences the outcomes vary greatly.
Reflecting is such a natural process that without it one would have to have amnesia. When we speak of experiential learning one may or may not always learn from their experiences. Just as with transformational learning, one may or may not be transformed by an event or experience. However, one can not tell one day from the next without the ability to reflect. Therefore, one has to remember what it is they are reflecting on to connect to the experience to be transformed.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
Candi Taylor-Jeter
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because reflection allows the student to evaluate experiences and make changes in current ways of thinking and acting (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). This is most appropriate as throughout the lifespan we continuously need to adapt to changes in our lives. One way we do this is by using our past experiences, evaluate their effectiveness and choose to either use them or modify them into fit a current situation,
There are two aspects of reflective learning. The first is reflection in learning. This aspect takes our experience within the context of action, allows us to reflect on those actions and then allows us the ability to make changes to the action. (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) Additionally, according to Schon, (1983), reflection in action allows us to continuously reevaluate situations and formulate new ways of doing them (Muslino & Mostrom, 2005, p 54).
The second aspect, reflection on action reviews an action after it has occurred. This review consists of reflecting on a past action, evaluating it and making a determination as to what we may have done differently. The final step is to actually decide whether a change will be made and if so we must decide on how to carry it out (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).
Reflection also needs to be continuous. As we constantly take in new stimuli we compare it to our current situation and past experiences, process it and gain new knowledge. We are not bound to make a change as part of this reflection but need to realize that change can occur. We always have the ability to keep the status quo. Lastly, in analyzing the reflective learning theory Schon writes, “Learning is achieved through practical experiences, not through theoretical studies” (Ekebergh, 2007, p 332).
Reflective learning can also be known as thinking outside the box. (Brookfield, 1987). This thought process is often encouraged and looked upon favorably in the nursing field. Even more specific is that the form of “reflection in action” refers to “critical reflection” which is described further as more than just a thought process but involving “intuition, improvisation and creativity” (Brookfield, 1987, p 155). In the world of nursing this is also known as “critical thinking”. It is imperative that nurses have strong critical thinking skills in order to assimilate, understand and act on the clinical information she/he receives on a daily basis. Current literature confirms the fact that nurses who successfully use critical thinking skills consistently provide better outcomes for their patients (Forneris & Peden-McAlpine, 2007). Therefore the reflective theory has strong implications and should be utilized and developed in all professions, specifically those who depend on strong analytical skills.
Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers. San Francisco, Ca: Jossey-Bass.
Ekebergh, M. (2007). Lifeworld-based reflection and learning: a contribution to the
Reflective practice in nursing and nursing education. Reflective Practice, 8 (3),
331-343.
Forneris, S. G., Peden-McAlpine, C. (2007). Evaluation of a reflective learning
Intervention to improve critical thinking in novice nurses. Journal of Advanced
Nursing, 410-423.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R.S., Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood:
A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Musolino, G. M., Mostrom, E. (2005). Reflection and the scholarship of teaching,
Learning, and assessment. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 19 (3),
52-66.
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because it is something all of us do without even knowing we're doing a 'learning theory'. There are two main headings under which Schon explains his Reflective Theory. These are: Reflection-in-action and Reflection-on-action. Reflection-in-action is when you are thinking on your feet, dealing with situations as they are happening. Reflection-on-action is after the situation has happened you think about what happened and what you did well as well as what you could have done better.
I believe every person does this in their own way. Every person has reflected upon something they've done or something they've said and discussed with themselves how they could have handled the situation better or gave themself a brief pat on the back by saying to themselves they handled it alright. We also react within situations based on our prior experiences, the only difference I can see is that Schon believes we need to slow down the whole process to actively reflect at that moment. Another aspect to his theory is to be open to new ideas. Openness is important in all aspects of learning.
Schön, D. (1987) Educating the Reflective Practitioner, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. How professionals think in action, London: Temple Smith.
Schön, D. A. (1991) The Reflective Turn: Case Studies In and On Educational Practice, New York: Teachers Press, Columbia University.
Reflective learning theory views the process of acquisition of new information from an experiential base. Adult learners bring with them life experiences when they come to the learning process. “People have concrete experience; they reflect on them and construct new knowledge as a result of these reflections. In this view, the focus is on the learner’s meaning-making processes as the result of an experience” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p.l60). As a theorist, Schon (1983) posit adult learners have knowledge they are not even aware of, a process significantly impacting their decisions and actions. “In much of the spontaneous behavior of skillful practice we reveal a kind of knowing which does not stem from a prior intellectual operation” ( p. 51); a process he later terms “tacit knowledge”.
As a nurse educator teaching new practitioners, this is a significant statement. How can I teach students to pay attention to their “tacit knowledge” (Kinsella, 2007) or information they do not even know they possess? How do you teach someone to trust their “gut” instinct in decision-making situations where patient symptoms are vague and undefined, yet we “know” something is wrong and immediate action is required? How do you instill the confidence in a new practitioner to act without implicit instructions or an understanding of why these actions are required?
Schon suggests in his theory of reflective learning it is by examining our actions learning occurs. “Reflection tends to focus interactively on the outcomes of the action, the action itself, and the intuitive knowing implicit in the action” (Schon, 1983, p.56). This suggests benefit in closely examining all actions, even those performed without implicit prior knowledge or intent. For the professional practitioner, reflective learning theory provides a framework for closely examining decisions made and actions performed to determine if they made sense, or if a different decision would have provided a better outcome. Reflection allows the practitioner to begin to make sense of their world, of decisions made and requires examination of resulting practice actions.
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), 14.
Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A comprehensive guide (Third ed.). San Franciso, Ca: Jossey-Bass.
Schon, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner. New Yorki: Basic Books.
Nancie,
Do you think reflection happens naturally for some people and has to be learned in others? Do you have an idea how "outsiders" like teachers can identify that reflection has taken place or do you think that outsiders may not be able to pinpoint all reflective learning in students. Was there any advice in your readings on how to best teach or facilitate reflective learning?
Melanie Birmingham
Response to anyone:
Do any of you know what the differences are in reflective learning and critical thinking? I'd like to get a clear explanation since most of what I'm reading about reflective theory sounds like paraphrasing of of what I've come to understand as the process of critical thinking.
Melanie Birmingham
The reflective learning theory provided me with a new paradigm on teaching and learning. I was taught to think from the objectivist view point. Kinsella (2007) state, the objectivist view is based on the theory that:
“The facts are what they are, and the truth of beliefs is strictly testable by reference to them. Professional competence is seen as technical experience, in which skilled professionals have accurate models of their objects and powerful techniques for manipulating them to achieve professional sanctioned ends.” (p. 282)
I use the theories, guidelines, and standards developed by my discipline and professional associations to prepare my assignments and perform tasks at work. Colleges, universities, professional associations, and accreditation boards developed technical knowledge or what Schon’s called “propositional/textbook knowledge”. Because it is accepted by my peers as the standards we use to be successful in school and at work, I believed technical knowledge was the validated way to do things.
The reflective practice theories have provided me with the “liberating education” that Stephen Brookfield describes in his book, Developing Critical Thinkers, Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. Brookfield (1987) states, “liberating education focuses on creativity, student self-direction, and openness to a diversity of interpretations of any particular topic, area of knowledge or theory” (p. 80).
The philosophy of reflective practice supports critical thinking, student self-direction, creativity, and openness to the diversity of interpretations. Schon describes reflective practices as non-rational, intuitive knowledge or knowing-in-action, which is a tacit, dynamic process that involves individuals engaged in spontaneous behavior of skillful practice, such as reflection-on-action, reflection-in-action, and theories-in-use, that will reveal a kind of knowing which does not stem from a prior intellectual operation nor propositional/textbook knowledge (Brockbank, 2007, p. 89).
Kinsella (2006) states that Schon’s believed:
“Knowing-in-action is revealed when a situation occurs that is disorienting for the practitioner and falls outside of the technical knowledge learned in school. The practitioner begins the process of remaking the practice world, trying to find a way of framing the world that is coherent and makes sense.” (p. 284)
As an educator and student, the reflective practice theory will be very useful to me because it will provide me with a new approach to problem solving. Reflective practice will help me to use disorienting experiences as a learning tool. I can examine my values and beliefs, collaborate with my colleagues, and be more aware of the non-rational, intuitive knowledge that I can use to find solutions to problems.
References
Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing Critical Thinkers, Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. San Francisco: Jossey-Boss
Kinsella, E. A. (2007). Embodied reflection and the epistemology of reflective practice. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 41(1), pp. 395–409.
Kinsella, E. A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), pp. 277–286.
Brockbank, A. (2007). Facilitating Reflective Leaning in Higher Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Reflective learning is based on the framework of engaging in problems and learning from the experience. According to Peltier, Hay and Drago (2005) reflection is seen as a learning tool and action process that is a crucial prerequisite to effective decision making. Donald Schon is known for his work with reflective learning. Schon emphasizes that learning in the process of experience takes place through reflecting the process of experience, and that this often happens at an intuitive, tacit level (Tennant & Pogson, 1995). Reflective learning is not merely being observant. It focuses on observing, being and listening. According to Hedberg (2009), reflective learning means wondering, probing, analyzing, synthesizing and connecting to the learning experience. It translates experience into learning.
Reflective learning is very important for the first year college student. According to Peltier et al (2005) learning is related to personal experience and other knowledge. Reflection also involves challenging assumptions, seeking alternatives, and identifying areas of improvement. With First Year Experience programs, students are engaged in learning processes that are synonymous with reflective learning. They are exposed to experiences that provoke critical thinking and become aware of why they think, perceive and act as they do. The First Year Experience program is designed to bring about a change in their personal beliefs about college success. This is done through thought provoking experiences that incorporate reflective learning for students.
Hedberg, P.R. (2009). Learning through reflective classroom practice: Applications to educate the reflective manager. Journal of Management Education, 33,(1), 10-36.
Peltier, J.W., Hay, A., & Drago, W. (2005). The reflective learning continuum: Reflecting on reflection. Journal of Marketing Education 27(3), 250-272.
Tennant, M. & Pogson, P. (1995). Learning and change in the adult years. San Francisco, CA: Josey Bass Publishing.
Michelle,
“Reflection-in-action is when you are thinking on your feet, dealing with situations as they are happening. Reflection-on-action is after the situation has happened you think about what happened and what you did well as well as what you could have done better.”
In reading your posting, in particular the above sentences, I can easily see how this theory could be utilized to explain everyday work related tasks. However, how can this theory be incorporated in the classroom instruction? What methods or techniques can be utilized to reinforce the basic concept that learning is based on reflection?
Reflective Learning
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it encompasses deals with reality whereas it promotes learning based on actions that students take as a result of real-world experiences. Donald Schon (1983) unveiling of his theory of reflective learning has sparked widespread interest from higher education practitioners (Kinsella, 2006). Key elements of Schon’s framework for adult learning: Reflection-in-action (the ability to think on ones feet and respond in real-time) and reflection-on-action (the ability to determine what was done right/wrong/can be done better after a situation has occurred) (Bourner, 2003; Schon, 1987). Schon also argued that the reflective learning process involves taking the time to properly reflect without rushing, being open to a new way of doing things, and allowing an open learning format across the learning spectrum (Schon, 1987).
To this end, I have witnessed reflective learning span cultural, religious, and socio-economic boundaries. For example, I served most of my adult life in the military – living in foreign countries and living stateside. Spending time with people from diverse cultures has revealed that everyone reflects on their lives in a way that: 1) makes them ask themselves how they could have done a better job 2) makes them question whether or not they could have handled an experience more efficiently or effectively and 3) allows for “kudos”, “atta boys”, and self-encouragement, when situations are handled the right way/in a way that produces positive results.
Reflective Learning and its Role in the 21st Century
The role of a well-educated society continues to be a frequently researched topic in the 21st century. Notably, this research has revealed that educational attainment has the power to bolster economic development and politically mobilize nations the world over (National Center on Education and the Economy (NCEE), 2006). When the 21st century ushered in with a big bang, almost instantaneously, the universe was thrust into the throes of a technological revolution – a place in time that is more flexible, creative, and complex than ever.
In the 21st century, we now operate in a world that is increasingly diverse, globalized, and to some extent, media frenzied. Emerging issues including global warming, poverty, hunger, genocide, AIDS, and the global population explosion have taken center stage (Gillespie, 2005; Spencer, 2008). As these issues emerge, so have new technologies, including the worldwide web, internet, and cellular networks. These new technologies offer unlimited possibilities; possibilities that include developing new energy sources, solving medical mysteries, restoring environmentally damaged properties, and exploring uncharted territories in space – fueling the need for lifelong learning and individuals that have the ability to think critically and learn reflectively (Bourner, 2003).
The convergence of critical thinking and reflective learning (thinking)
Brookfield (1987) noted “learning to think critically is one of the most significant activities of adult life…we [critical thinkers] become skeptical of quick-fix solutions and ideas are generated…we [critical thinkers] also become open to alternative ways of looking at, and behaving in the world…(ix). Critical thinking and reflective thinking have two common elements: 1) bringing about a sense of awareness on a conscious level and 2) seeking answers to unresolved issues and problems (e.g. Bourner, 2003). Schon (1987) best summed up the merits of reflective learning when he argued that it presents a unique opportunity to spark change (as cited in Kinsella, 2006, p. 399). Mezirow (1990) made a profound statement in regards to the substance of reflective learning: “…perhaps even more central to adult learning than elaborating established meaning schemes is the process of reflecting back on prior learning to determine whether what we have learned is justified under present circumstances. This is a crucial learning process egregiously ignored by learning theorists” (p. 5). To this end, the utility of reflective learning in addressing the volatility of an ever-changing society warrants consideration.
References
Bourner, T. (2003). Assessing reflective learning. Education + Training, 45(5), 267-272. Retrieved March 31, 2009, from http://www.brighton.ac.uk/cupp/pdf%20files/assessment2.pdf
Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. Danvers, MA: Jossey-Bass.
Gillespie, S. (2005). Aids, poverty and hunger: An overview. Retrieved September 9, 2008, from http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/books/oc50/oc50.pdf
Kinsella, E. (2006, August). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schön’s theory of reflective
practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286. Retrieved February 1, 2009, doi:10.1080/14623940600837319
Mezirow, J. & Associates. (1990) Fostering critical reflection in adulthood San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
National Center on Education and the Economy. (2006). The report of the new commission on the skills of the American workforce: tough choices, times. Retrieved March 31, 2009, from http://www.skillscommission.org/pdf/exec_sum/ToughChoices_
EXECSUM.pdf
Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
Spencer, C. (2008, September 13). Global issues of the twenty-first century and united nations challenges: A guide to facts and views on major or future trends. Retrieved September 20, 2008, from http://www.global-challenges.org/
The reflective theory best explains why adults learn because reflective practice, or reflection, is considered such a vital component of the learning process (Schon, 1987). It is the process of internally examining and explaining an issue of concern, triggered by experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and results in a changed conceptual perspective. Anytime there is such a great emaphasis on the processing on the information, there is more learning involved. Reflective learning is a very good way for you to take knowledge that you already know and connect it to the new information (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgardner, 2007). Another reason that reflective learning best describes it considers one's own experiences in applying knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schon, 1996). I believe that one cannot truly learn anything unless that person indulges themselves into the learning process. When the learner does this, it creates an enviroment where the learner is more able to understand the information.
Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide. (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.
Schon, D. A. (1996). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S.
The Reflective theory best explains why adults learn, because it is a process of reflecting on prior experiences and relating them to new knowledge (Kinsella, 2006). An adult learner has a greater bank of information in which to draw from this knowledge and relate to current learning efforts. Younger children have a smaller bank of prior knowledge but are taught the skill of reflection at a young age. Several educators including myself use KWL (What I know? What I want to know? and What I learned?) charts for reflection. By allowing children to learn the process at a young age they will be better able to apply this practice as an adult. Further analysis of the reflective theory shows the connection between reflection a cognitive skill and critical thinking a metacognative skill (Kuiper and Pesut, 2004). Critical thinking skills are skills that we wish for all of our students. As adult learner educators using reflective journals/data logs will help establish reflective practice in students. Reflective theory uses critical thinking as a basis hower all of the learning theories interact with each other to make the learner a well rounded student.
References
Kuiper, R.A. & Pesut, D.J. (2004). Promoting cognitive and metacognitive reflective reasoning skills in nursing practice: self-regulated learning theory. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 45(4), 381-391.
Kinsella, E.A. (2006). Constructivist underpinnings in Donald Schon's theory of reflective practice: Echoes of Nelson Goodman. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 277-286.
Reflective learning is a very good way for you to start with existing knowledge and connect it to the new information (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgardner, 2007). This explanation of adult learning is clearly different from how a child learns. A child learns mainly by engagement “….in non reflective learning, such as remembering an experience, repeating an experience, or doing what they are told. (Merriam et al., 2007).
What I do not see in your definitions of reflective learning is how emotion, reasoning, and community play into this theory.
Does Kolb, or anyone speak to this?
“Education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school”. ~Albert Einstein
Many have defined learning in many different ways. In my opinion, learning must include reflection as an integral part of the whole learning process. Some definitions merely define learning as a mechanical system of memorization and regurgitation of facts. But quiet the contrary, especially if you are considering how deeper learning takes place. Let’s first consider the definitions of the two words “learning” and “reflection”, as defined from a grammatical stand point and then move toward considering learning to include reflection from a broader view of how this type of learning process relates to the adult learner.
Brockbank and McGill (2007) define the word “learning” from a grammatical standpoint as both a noun and a verb. Brockbank and McGill write that the word “learning” as a noun means, a product, ‘knowledge, skills, attitudes or values acquired through study, experience or being taught. However, the word “learning” as a verb means, the process of acquiring knowledge, skill etc.; becoming aware of something, or memorizing something. Reflection as a noun is defined as a fixing of the thoughts on something; careful thought especially the process of reconsidering previous actions, events, or decisions and can be considered the act of serious thought. Learning without reflection – can one exist without the other?
Broader definitions reveal a wide variety of approaches about the concept of learning. For example, Ramsden (1993) states that learning should be seen in a qualitative change in a person’s way of seeing, experiencing, understanding, conceptualizing something in the real world. From Ramsden’s viewpoint, the learning process goes far beyond what is indicated by Brockbank and McGill’s grammatical definitions of the two words. Reflective learning takes place when a person’s behavior or way of thinking changes because of what is learned. In order for this to happen reflection must be a part of the learning process. In Ramsden’s definition you can infer that a person must take time to reflect and observe the new experience to develop a new concept of thinking and then experiment with it to determine if it is relevant and applicable to one’s own world.
Biggs (1999) defines learning and reflection as the process of interacting with the world. He says that we learn our conceptions of phenomena change and we see the world differently. He goes on to say that the acquisition of new information in itself does not bring about such change, but the way we structure that information and think does. He concludes that education is about conceptual change, not just the acquisition of information. Again, Briggs, as Ramsden, suggests that the learning process must include time to reflect and dig deeper about the concepts being presented.
Many investigators have emphasized the importance of reflecting on what you are doing, as part of the learning process. Donald Schon (1983) suggested that the capacity to reflect on action so as to engage in a process of continuous learning was one of the defining characteristics of professional practice. To me this suggests that the act of reflecting can help a person to better understand ones strengths and weaknesses, identify and question your underlying values and beliefs, acknowledge and challenge possible assumptions on which you base your ideas, feelings and actions, recognized areas of potential bias, acknowledged fears, and identified possible inadequacies or areas for improvement.
What is the role of reflection in the teaching and learning process?
Reflection can lead to greater self-awareness, which in turn is a first step to positive change. Taking time to reflect can help a person identify approaches that have worked well, and in that way reinforce good practice. It can also help you to discard approaches that haven’t worked well, too. That is one of the reasons that reflection is so important in the teaching and learning process. It is a level of deeper thinking that goes beyond the surface. “Reflecting is indicative of deep learning, and where teaching and learning activities such as reflection are missing…only surface learning can result”. (Biggs, 1987)
Reflection can lead to a person’s personal and professional growth and cause meaningful lifetime change. Reflective activities given to students help them to learn through reflection, because a link is established between reflection and deeper learning. The intention is to produce students to acquire a habit of reflection as a means of continuing to learn and grow.
I’ve found that a major obstacle to learning through reflection is the amount of time that is needed to explore the experience in depth. A lack of time frequently limits opportunities for learning, which will not lead to meaningful insights or positive change. The person must have ample time to reflect by describing the context of the incident in detail and explaining why the incident is critical and significant to oneself. Time must be allocated for explanation of any concerns or thoughts at the time and then additional time allowed to describe feelings about what is taking place. So you can see that there are implications of reflective learning during the teaching and learning process but in my opinion, the benefit of allowing time to reflect out weighs the implications.
The major issue to the practioner is that you are limited to a very short class schedule and there is not enough time to allow each student reflecting time. Or if you have a class that is too large, its size would not allow interaction and reflection time ample for exploration and interaction. However one must find ways to allow reflection in order for critical thinking and reflecting to occur during the learning process.
In conclusion, based on varying definitions of learning and reflection, it is determined that for deeper understanding and learning to happen, reflection must be an integral part of the learning process. Can one exist without the other – no if deep learning is to occur. Deep learning is the result of a more critical thinking process of reflection, which causes the thinker to change his behavior or views, especially if it is determined relevant to ones own way of life.
References:
Atherton, J. S., (2005). Learning
and Teaching: Reflection
and Reflective Practice
[On-line)UK:
Available:
http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/reflecti.htm Accessed:
30 March 2009
Biggs, J., (1987). Student
Approaches to Learning and
Studying Hawthorn, Vic:
Australian Council for
Educational Research
Brockbank, A. and McGill, I.,
(2007). Facilitating
reflective learning in
higher education,
Society for Research into
Higher Education. McGraw-
Hill International.
Ramsden, P., (1992). Learning to
Teach in Higher Education
London: Routledge.
Schon, D. A., (1983). The
Reflective Practitioner:
how professionals think in
act:ion London:
Temple Smith: Available: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/reference.htm#SCHON
Accessed: 31 March 2009
The Reflective Learning Theory best explains why adults learn because when we engage in reflective learning we "plan, monitor, and reflect upon our experiences. (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) Reflective learning requires that we learn from our experiences. Experience is the best teacher. Right? Reflective learning has the advantage of focusing on activity rather than claiming a state of being, and learning is always likely to be a state of 'becoming' rather than static. (Brockbank, McGill, & Beech, 2002) Learning is an ongoing process, when we reflect upon our prior experiences it allows us to better understand what we did or did not learn from those experiences. Rather than seeking to achieve a solid state of being, reflective learning is active-a continuous process of 'becoming' in changing circumstances. (Brockbank, McGill, & Beech, 2002) Reflective learning is active, not passive. We cannot reflect for others, only for ourselves.
Brockbank, A., McGill, I., & Beech, N. (2002). Reflective Learning In Practice. Gower Publishing, Ltd.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because it provides the foundation for learning by allowing learners to constantly reflect on the material covered during a class session. Adult learners are required to devote time outside of class to reading, studying and reviewing concepts. Bladen Community College uses the rule of thumb that a student should commit to spending at least one hour to studying per every one hour spent in class.
Reflecting learning allows an individual to meditate on a concept’s original intent. This will allow ample time for the individual to develop their own theory based on the original idea of the concept. Constantly reviewing a subject matter enables an individual to better comprehend its objective.
We have, in often times, been referred to as creatures of habit. We learn behavioral patterns based on the patterns that are displayed in our social environment that we have deemed acceptable and appropriate. During adolescence and elementary educational stages we learn a large amount of material based on constant review and repetition. As adult learners, reflection plays an equally essential role.
Reflective learning can take place in a series of ways. For instance reflective learning can be implemented by assigning students to complete a group assignment based on a previous class lecture. Learners may also opt to utilize note cards to review material at their convenience. Reflective learning provides learners with the opportunity to excel academically by reviewing course related material. Reflective learning can also be implemented in employment training programs, liberal arts, and performing arts.
Reflective Theory best explains why adults learn because it allows individuals to make judgments based on experiences and prior knowledge. It is practice knowledge based. It allows us to use data from our past and the present experiences. It allows for a higher–level of thinking process. It is used by practitioners to examine beliefs, goals, and practices to help them improve learning for their students (Merriam, 2007).
There are several elements of reflective practice. Reflective practice requires slowing down to consider multiple views. One should always keep an open mind. Reflective practice requires active process of thinking about thinking. That would include analysis, synthesis, and metacognition in order to achieve a broader content for understanding (Merriam, 2007).
Finally, beliefs, goals, and practices must be considered. Beliefs are formed by our experiences and influence our behavior, while goals are our desired outcome (Merriam, 2007).
In our text by Merriam, Welling and Austin stated that reflective thinking could be filtered though the practitioner’s belief and value systems of practice which results in five orientations toward reflective practice: the immediate, the technical, the deliberative, the dialectic, and the transpersonal. Their views of reflective practice were a different way of looking at the reflective practice theory. They felt that the practitioners should realize their own orientation as well as to respect the orientation of others (Merriam, 2007).
There are two basic process that have been identified in the reflective practice: reflective –on-action and reflective –inaction. Reflection-on-action involves evaluation of the action after it has all ready happened. In our reevaluation of the action, we decide what we would have done differently, and then we try it out. In our text by Merriam, Kolb’s allows for a process of continued change and growth. Merriam text stated that Keogh, and Walker added to Kolb model by stating that we must first attend to our own feelings created by our experiences in order for the reflective process to be effective. They also added more descriptions of the four cognitive processes (integration, validation and appropriation) that may contribute to the process (Merriam, 2007).
Merriam text stated that Osterman and Kottkamp set reflection practice into a framework. They viewed reflective practice cycle as one of helping the practitioner become aware of and act on, their findings between their beliefs and what they actual did do. In this process, individuals contrast the two to find out their own theories-in-use (Merriam, 2007).
Reflection-in-action is defined as “what we are doing while we are doing it” (Schon, 1987,p.26). According to him it is triggered by surprise. It is when what we are thinking and doing no longer works and we must do something else on the spot to achieve our goal. It is thinking on our feet to solve a situation. He felt that this practice went beyond stable rules by developing new methods of reasoning and helped to find new ways to respond to problems (Merriam, 2007).
Both of these processes, reflective –on-action and reflective –in-action, are used by educators who are reflective in their practice to build on their expertise (Merriam, 2007).
References
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass
Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hi Mary,
I agree to what you have said about reflective thinking because it does offer the learner an opportunity to think about a situation.
Experience has to happen before the reflection can begin. It is in my own personal experience that reflection is more adamant when I am involved in something new and have never experienced it before. The analysis of the experience helps decifer what I have learned. Do you reflect in this manner?
Hi Chandra,
I agree wtih your post explaining reflective learning of educators. It is important for an educator to reflect on a lesson plan taught because it will help him or her understand how effective it was. He or she can decifer what may have worked and what may have not worked for enhancement or improvement.
The educator should also incorporate into his or her lesson plan a time for the student to reflect upon their learning to enhance their cognitive abilities.
When I first incorporated reflection into my lesson plan, the students felt uneasy about the exercise. After performing two to three reflections, they were not hesitant and looked forward to reflecting.
Have you found this to be true?
One term where I focus is: collaboration. That’s the sharing of experiences in a group environment. The art of working together and sharing information is truly an aspect of the Reflective Learning Theory. In the adult learning environment, I believe it’s essential to engage and learn from the students. This strategy creates a two-way dialogue and allows a variety of positions and perspectives via an active (two-way) discussion. Discussion and involvement lead to further, in-depth participation which generates trust within the classroom environment. Adult learning depends on the newness of “what works” within the business environment. New ideas and concepts are openly visited when a group, as a group, is interested. As stated, straight talk is “say what you mean, mean what you say” (Covey, 2008). In an adult learning environment this is difficult, but when achieved it can be most beneficial and rewarding.
References:
Covey, S (2008), The Speed of Trust, The One Thing That Changes Everything, with Rebecca R. Merrill
Hi everyone! I hope I am doing this right.
Thanks for your postings on Reflective learning. Part of Experiential learning also relies on reflection as part of the learning experience.
In healthcare we use reflection as an performance and evluation tool on a regular basis. I gave a couple of examples in my post ont he experiential learning blog, but another example has to do with learning a new skill, particularly a technical skill.
We often teach risky, technical skills in simulation so we have an opportunity to evaluate the pratitioners performance before they care for actual patients. A good example is ACLS or Advanced Cardiac Life Support. This is a skill that involves critical thinking and decision making, technical skills, and communication skills. People who need ACLS have suffered a cardiac arrest and require resuscitation. Practicing the resuscitation skills in the classrooms setting allows the instructors to coach the practitioners and allows the practitioners to make their mistakes in simulation rather than on an actual person. We do reflection after each station, pointing out where performace was good and where it can be improved.
Do you think there is a role for non-reflective learning? For instance, the person ordering hte medications in this emergency situation needs to have common resuscitation medication and dosages memorized. We also follow the American Heart Association's algorhythmsfor ACLS. While they are located on the crash cart, no one wants to be flipping through charts while the patient is dying.
Reflective practice allows one to make judgements in complex and murky situations– judgements based on experience and prior knowledge. (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner 2007)
When I think about the experiences that I have experienced so far in life I feel as if I have a lot to share but at the same time still a lot to learn. John Dewey (1938), in his classic volume Experience and Education, made some of the most thoughtful observations about the connections between life experiences and learning. As I relate reflective practice to my field of work I have ten years experience as a financial advisor so when preforming my job it comes easy to do so. As my newer co-workers that are new to the field it is harder for them to adapt to the consist interruptions that the job brings while staying on task. But this makes me think about when I first begin in the field I was so eager to learn more I took the initiative to learn as much as I could on my own and asked many questions to the veterans. I don’t see any initiative in any of them in the work they do. As a result they are consistently chasing their tails trying to get the job done when it’s really not that hard if they would ask more questions. In contrast, reflection-in-action reshapes “what we are doing while we are doing it” (Schon, 1987, p.26). Reflective practice allows you to think on your feet. Wellington and Austin (1996) have depicted a way of thinking about reflective practice that acknowledges how it could be filtered through the belief and value systems of practitioners, which in their view results in five orientations toward reflective practice: the immediate, the technical, the deliberative, the dialectic and the transpersonal.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R.S., Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc
Schon, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.
Wellington, B., & Austin, P. (1996). Orientations to reflective practice. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 307-316.
Curtis,
Reflections can make an adult think about what they have already learned and helps to make sense of that learning but what actually causes the learned knowledge? The process begins with experiences and feeling and then ends with reflection. I believe that in order to learn one must be able to be in a situation that gets their feelings involved and then they form a notion of the way they are suppose to look at the situation. Once they have had the experience and learned what to do then reflection comes into play and forces them to form new insight about the situation.
As quoted by Taylor (2000a) in Baumgartner (2007): notes of Mezirow’s theory that “critical reflection is granted too much importance and does not give enough attention to the significance of affective learning- the role of emotions and feelings in the process of transformation” (p.151)
Baumgartner, L., Caffarella, R., & Merriam, S., (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Response for Sandra Walker,
Sandra I enjoyed your post on Reflective Learning. What particularly caught my eye was how much it personally impacted you over the cultural, religious and social-economic boundaries. What are some good examples you can provide that had that profound effect on your experience.
Respectfully,
David Harrower
Hi Joyce
Do you feel that the reflective learning theory is preparing the student for the real "world"? My feeling about the reflective theory is that it will help our students to think out-of-the-box in making their decisions. Not causing problems, but giving other options in completing their work in a more successful way.
Resonse To Debra Singletary:
Hi Debra,
Since reflection alone does not bring about learning, but in fact you need time and change, do you think that Transformative Learning might be a more inclusive theory on learning?
Rodney
Resonse To Debra Singletary:
Hi Debra,
Since reflection alone does not bring about learning, but in fact you need time and change, do you think that Transformative Learning might be a more inclusive theory on learning?
Rodney
Response to anthony Thomas
Anthony,
Do you see Reflective Theory as an element of Transformative Learning?
Why or why not?
Thanks,
Rodney
Response to Michelle:
Hello Michelle!
I liked your post about Reflective Learning. I think you provided a good description of the difference between Reflection-in-Action and Reflection-on-Action.
I noticed that you have several primary sources in your reference list, yet there are no in-text citations. That would make it very difficult to reference those sources. You might want to consider adding them.
Generally speaking, I agree with your comment that we all already do this. Even so, I tend to agree with Schon that we might want to slow down sometimes to deliberately reflect on actions and deliberately try to learn from them.
Scott Fabel
Hi Matt,
When I think about reflection I see it as a tool to improve self. For instance, there have been times when my students have frustrated me(really?) Rather than examine the lesson, or how well I presented it, I have journaled to get to the heart of why I felt frustrated.
James Orlick
The reflective learning theory best elucidates why adults learn because it cultivates, builds upon, and reshapes past experiences rather than replicating them.
The learning theorist Peter Jarvis explains that, “ironically, often the more experiences we have, the less likely we are to learn from them,” (Merrian, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Therefore, nonreflective learning, the repetition of previous experiences, does not encourage learning. On the other hand, reflective learning will encourage new learning experiences through the evaluation of previous experiences. Those experiences will be used as groundwork to build on learning.
“Critical reflection can challenge embedded assumptions, beliefs, and values, (Hedberg, 2009). The evaluative stage of reflective learning has similar traits as transformative learning. According to Jack Mezirow, transformative learning is “the process by which we transform our taken-for-granted frames of reference (meaning schemes, habits of mind, mindsets) to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide action,” (Merrian, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).
Therefore, reflective learning manifests the progressive results experiences that encourages intellectual growth.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guild (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Hedberg, Patricia Raber. (2009) Learning through Reflective Classroom Practice: Applications to Educate the Reflective Manager. The Journal of Management Education, v33 n1 p10-36.
James Orlick jro236@nyu.edu
The reflective learning theory best elucidates why adults learn because it cultivates, builds upon, and reshapes past experiences rather than replicating them.
The learning theorist Peter Jarvis explains that, “ironically, often the more experiences we have, the less likely we are to learn from them,” (Merrian, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Therefore, nonreflective learning, the repetition of previous experiences, does not encourage learning. On the other hand, reflective learning will encourage new learning experiences through the evaluation of previous experiences. Those experiences will be used as groundwork to build on learning.
“Critical reflection can challenge embedded assumptions, beliefs, and values, (Hedberg, 2009). The evaluative stage of reflective learning has similar traits as transformative learning. According to Jack Mezirow, transformative learning is “the process by which we transform our taken-for-granted frames of reference (meaning schemes, habits of mind, mindsets) to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, emotionally capable of change, and reflective so that they may generate beliefs and opinions that will prove more true or justified to guide action,” (Merrian, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007).
Therefore, reflective learning manifests the progressive results experiences that encourages intellectual growth.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guild (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Hedberg, Patricia Raber. (2009) Learning through Reflective Classroom Practice: Applications to Educate the Reflective Manager. The Journal of Management Education, v33 n1 p10-36.
Response to Anthony Thomas,
I was wondering what would happen if students were to no grasp the original concept that the teacher was trying to teach and then work on thier own in reflection about that concept. Would they not be learning the wrong thing? If they did group work and the group overall did not understand the concept would this reflective component be furthering that learning. How does one make sure that the learning is correct before the reflective part takes place.
Rob Campbell
In Response to Debra Singletary,
Hi Debra, I enjoyed you post very much and have to agree with the lack of time usually given to reflection. There is time needed to be sure that the person has a true grasp on the incident or learning situation that they have experienced and I believe there needs to be time given for understanding of the content of that experience and as you mentioned what it meant to the learner. Because all students learn at different rates I imagine that they would also reflect in different ways as well. Your comments on the limits of class schedules making this process difficult were quite correct. Do you have any suggestions how this can be addressed in the classroom?
Thanks again for the post.
Rob Campbell
(Please respond to Lisa@Walden and not sam i am... did not want to set up another gmail account)
"The reflective learning theory best explains why adults learn because….”. “Clearly people learn from experience” (p. 163). The reflective learning theory involves “thinking about and monitoring one’s practice as it is happening” (p. 164). Additionally, the “reflective practice allows one to make judgments in complex an murky situations…” (p.164).
As I think about the reflective practice, it leads to the path of critical thinkers and how critical thinkers process information and deal with situations. “Critical thinkers are actively engaged with life… they see the future as open malleable, not closed or fixed” (Brookfield 1987, p. 5) I conclude that there many similarities between the reflective practice and being a critical thinker. Thus, if I had to explain what reflective thinking was to a layperson I would define the reflective learning theory as such: The reflective learning theory is a theory that is based on experience and requires one to have an open mind and think clearly about past, present, or future actions and the consequences that accompany said actions prior to or while partaking in said action, if possible.
That being said there are two critical components that relate to the reflective learning theory: a) reflection-on-action which involves thinking through a situation after it has happened (Merriam et al. 2007, p. 174), and, b) reflection-in-action in contrast, reshapes “what we are doing while we are doing it… “thinking on your feet” or “keeping your wits about you” are commonly used phrases to describe this notion. (p. 176)
In closing Merriam et al. shares, “educators who were reflective in their practice used both reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action to build their expertise” (p. 177).
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing Critical Thinkers, Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. San Francisco: Jossey-Boss.
My defense of the Reflective Learning Theory is based on what I see as its alternative, “unreflective learning” (if it is even possible to do such a thing!)
Schön in The Reflective Practitioner (1983) argues for a kind of reflective practice in action that is cyclical in nature beginning with the “situation as it is”, then bringing personal experience and questioning of the actual practice into the equation with the goal of impacting actual performance.
The alternative to this in his opinion is giving up to “academic professionals” to both identify and solve “the problem” with a technocratic and detached methodology. By engaging in reflective practice (learning) an individual or group (with a vested interest in the outcome) creates the option of bringing current practices into question.
Much of my work over the past 25 years has been as an organizational consultant. I have found that getting individuals (and especially the decision makers) in organizations to engage in reflective learning absolutely necessary (and extremely difficult) in both identifying “the problems or messes” and the components necessary for change-solutions.
I am in total agreement with John P. Kotter (1996) of Harvard Business School when he states,
Major change will not happen easily because of inwardly focused cultures, paralyzing bureaucracy, parochial politics, a low level of trust, lack of teamwork, arrogant attitudes, a lack of leadership in middle management, and the general human fear of the unknown. (p. 20)
Any of the above (and surely the weight of it all) makes it difficult to convince “decision makers” in organizations to engage in reflective learning.
I have found in practice that once such fears as “losing positional authority”, having personal limitations “exposed”, etc. have been addressed (Leadership and Self-Deception, p.131) so that the goal of organizational success can be achieved (after all when the organization “wins” then all in the organization win.) then it is easier to convince decision makers to lead their organization into very productive “reflective learning”. The opposite is also true and all too often I have witnessed individuals willing to sacrifice the long term good of an organization in order to maintain a personal profile of power and control.
Therefore, I am an active proponent of reflective learning.
The Arbinger Institute, (2002), Leadership and Self-Deception, San Francisco: Berrett- Koehler Publishers, Inc.
Kotter, John P. (1996), Leading Change, Boston: Harvard Business School Press
Schön, D.A., (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Eventhough reflecting on the process that the person when through is esential, if it was not for the Experiential Learning Theory the individual would not realize what they have done. The experience the person recived from the task weights heavily and creates a skills to expand. I beleive experiencial learning is what drives the process of reflective learning.
Reflective Learning Theory
Reflective learning is considered a dominant learning theory in adult education, consisting of journaling, self-directed question-and-answer modalities, as well as comprehensive overview of ongoing learning achievements (Warhurst, 2008). This type of learning is particularly effective for the adult learner because it brings to bear experiences and previous education that is valuable to the process of assimilating new knowledge. By reflecting on what one already knows compared to what one is being asked to learn, the mind can contextualize unfamiliar information, decreasing the learning curve and increasing the applicability of the new material (Cook, Gelula, Dupras, & Schwartz, 2007).
Reflective learning views learning as an introspective process in which the learner is responsible for developing his own determinants for the quality and quantity of information that is internalized. This allows the learner to cognitively ingest what is useful and disavow what is not (Lowe, Rappolt, Jaglal, & MacDonald, 2007). Reflective learning theory, then, upholds and validates the autonomy of the learner, allowing him to commandeer the learning process and individualize it in precisely the way he sees fit. It can be said that reflective learning is andragogy at its finest (Cook et al, 2007). In what other way can one so succinctly map a path for educational success through the wilds of the higher education arena?
References:
Cook, D. A., Gelula, M. H., Dupras, D. M., & Schwartz, A. (2007). Instructional methods and cognitive and learning styles in web-based learning: Report of two randomized trials. Medical Education, 41(9), 897-905. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database.
Lowe, M., Rappolt, S., Jaglal, S., & MacDonald, G. (2007). The role of reflection in implementing learning from continuing education into practice. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 27(3), 143-148. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.
Warhurst, R. (2008). Reflections on reflective learning in professional formation. Studies in the Education of Adults, 40(2), 176-191. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database.
Alex
Response to Sandra Walker...
Do you find that reflective learning theory is similar to experiential learning theory? I really enjoyed reading your military example. It seems that students learn better once they have had the opportunity to see how the learning applies to their lives.
Hello Tanisha,
I would like to think that experience is our best teacher; because when we reflect upon our experiences we are not going to repeat our bad experiences, are we? We are going to repeat all that is learned well and that, which are positive experiences.
Lorenza
Response to Nedra Allen: You asked a great follow-up question to my post: "Do you find that reflective learning theory is similar to experiential learning theory." Reflective learning is very much tied to experiential learning because they are both "active" whereas the learner plays an instrumental role in the learning process. Much of the conclusions drawn from these experiences depends on the interpretation of the learner.
Response to David Harrower:
David,
I have some really good examples of how reflective learning has played an integral part of my life, particularly when I reflect on my military career and how I have applied what was learned to navigating the waters in the civilian world. Rule number: Embrace diversity and be open to learning about new cultures because
your quality of life and relationships with others may well depend on it. For example, I have a friendship circle that spans worldwide and as a result a "network" that has kept me abreast of the political, social, and economic landscape on a global scale. Because I am "informed", I am armed with the tools to converse with people at all levels of organizations. This is important because I have an agenda - my agenda is to address pressing community issues and support students as they prepare to transition from high school to college.
"The Reflective Learning theory best explains why adults learn because of the way adults have been taught to learn by their working environment. As adults we take training classes that teach us to follow a process rather than understanding why we are doing a task we merely understand the task we need to do triggered by the task we just completed, reflective learning. By completing the same set of tasks over and over again we learn the process and not necessarily the task. We prove this theory every time we try to alter that learned process at a fast food restaurant. The server needs to follow the script they have been taught in order to complete the customer request.
Jarvis states “we tend to choose what is familiar and deny ourselves new learning” (Jarvis, 2001). This is most evident with adult learners. They tend to be less opportunistic and just want to understand the minimum of the work necessary to succeed. What is most concerning about this trend is that the companies supplying the training only want to supply the minimum (usually under contract to a sponsoring company) and therefore do nothing to alter the methodology. At the conclusion of the training there is always an assessment exercise that the student are required to complete but the assessments really focus on the content and the instructor. The methodology is rarely questioned.
Jarvis, P. (2001). Learning in later life: An introduction for educators and careers. In P. Jarvis, Learning in later life: An introduction for educators and careers. London: Kogan Page.
Response to Scott:
What is your specific experience with company training? I have found that it's not always necessary for employees and participants to understand the methodolgy of training. The goal of the training to is learning something new. If that is accomplished it doesn't make sense for the company to waste time of explaining methods.
Hi Janelle,
I agree with you when involving students in the learning process. I believe in the effectiveness of the Reflective Learning Theory especially when it allows educators to evaluate their own methods of teaching. As De la Harpe (1999) states that reflection “includes the ability to be self-aware, to analyze experiences, to evaluate their meaning and to plan further action based on the analyses and reflection”. Reflective learning is important because it extracts meaning from the experience. Do you think that there are techniques that have to be taught or are they accomplished by individuals spontaneously, and why?
Thank you.
De la Harpe, B. & Radloff, A. (1999). Helping future teachers to be effective learners: providing
in-context learning support for first year Teacher Education students. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 24(2)
The Reflective Learning theory best explains why adults learn because of the way adults have been taught to learn by their working environment. As adults we take training classes that teach us to follow a process rather than understanding why we are doing a task we merely understand the task we need to do triggered by the task we just completed, reflective learning. By completing the same set of tasks over and over again we learn the process and not necessarily the task. We prove this theory every time we try to alter that learned process at a fast food restaurant. The server needs to follow the script they have been taught in order to complete the customer request.
Jarvis states “we tend to choose what is familiar and deny ourselves new learning” (Jarvis, 2001). This is most evident with adult learners. They tend to be less opportunistic and just want to understand the minimum of the work necessary to succeed. What is most concerning about this trend is that the companies supplying the training only want to supply the minimum (usually under contract to a sponsoring company) and therefore do nothing to alter the methodology. At the conclusion of the training there is always an assessment exercise that the student are required to complete but the assessments really focus on the content and the instructor. The methodology is rarely questioned.
Jarvis, P. (2001). Learning in later life: An introduction for educators and careers. In P. Jarvis, Learning in later life: An introduction for educators and careers. London: Kogan Page.
Melanie: (In response to your April 2nd post).
You asked a question regarding differences between reflective learning and critical thinking. I covered the "convergence of reflective learning and critical thinking" in my April 3rd post (I believe after you posted your question). Take a look. Let me know if this information helps. Have a great day!
Scotty,
"...As adults we take training classes that teach us to follow a process rather than understanding why we are doing a task we merely understand the task we need to do triggered by the task we just completed, reflective learning..."
That is so true. And, I believe you've addressed one of the many differences between "Baby Boomers" and following generations (GEN-X, Milleniums, etc.).
Karl Schiller
Hi Troy,
"...I believe experiential learning is what drives the process of reflective learning..."
I fully concur with your statement above.
Thanks,
Karl Schiller
Response to Scotty,
Hi Scotty,
You raise some very insightful points in your post, and I agree with most of your points. However, I want to challenge you to look at a couple of your points from a different perspective.
You stated that adults tend to want to understand the minimum of the work necessary to succeed, and companies supplying the training only want to supply the minimum and therefore do nothing to alter the methodology. I believe adult learners actually DO want to learn more than the minimum, but (at least in the corporate world), they are trained by companies only to learn and implement procedures that are related to the job they are performing, and nothing more. The savy adult learner sees this as an opportunity to learn beyond what the company trains them to do (even if it requires veturing outside the company to increase their learning) so that they can become a more valuable asset to the company they work for, or use their new skills to gain employment with a new company. That is what I did when I enrolled in a computer training school several years ago in order to make myself more marketable when I realized the company I worked for at the time had available positions that required certain skills. When I was overlooked for the positions I applied for within that company, I took my newly learned skills to another company...also, I think companies are only interested in spending minimal resources on training for employees because they are only interested in securing their bottom line in regards to profit-less money going out and more money coming in.
Response to Alex,
Hi Alex,
Although I agree with you that reflective learning theory is an effective model of learning, I don't believe it to be the dominant adult learning theory. In comparing reflective theory and experiential theory, what would be your reason to favor the reflective theory?
Thanks,
-Sara
D3: Reflective Learning Theory
Of the triad of theories, i.e. transformative, experiential, and reflective, it is the reflective theory that influences and shapes the other two. First, however, it is important to briefly establish what reflective practice is and the value it has in learning before demonstrating how it influences and shapes the other two.
Definition and Value of Reflective Learning
According to Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007), reflection “allows one to make judgments in complex…situations…based on…prior knowledge.” (p. 172) Loughran (2002) posits that it is often the occurrence of a problem or perplexing situation that initiates reflective practice. Thus, Merriam, et al. (2007) suggest a four-element approach to problem-solving using reflection: 1) deliberately slow down, 2) maintain an open perspective, 3) actively and consciously process thoughts, and 4) examine beliefs, goals and practices.
Using reflection can have real value, especially from an educational perspective. Loughran (2002) cites such ideas as deeper understanding of teaching, better understanding of what is known not only on the part of the instructor but also on the part of the student, development of knowledge and understanding of both the subject matter as well as the reflective process itself, and the ability to improve professional judgment. He suggests that “reflection is effective when it leads the teacher to make meaning from the situation in ways that enhance understanding.” (Loughran, 2002, p. 36) This is what he calls effective reflection. Despite these and other reflective behaviors, Merriam, et al. (2007) suggests two central practices: reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action. For reflection-on-action there is a reevaluation process that occurs after a situation has taken place in order to determine what could have been done differently. Conversely, reflection-in-action is responding to a situation as it is occurring. Effective reflection includes knowing one’s own personal style, i.e. reflection-on-action versus reflection-in-action. Which are you?
Influence of Reflection on Transformative and Experiential Theories
In order for the transformative process to occur, according to Merriam, et al. (2007) an experience is needed but with that experience critical reflection is necessary, as well as reflective discourse before action can take place. Then it is through the action that transformation can transpire. However, just having an experience will not lead to transformation without a reflective process in between. Therefore, the value comes when reflection is part of an experience in order for a transformation to be undertaken.
Loughran, J. J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning
about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), pp. 33-43.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood:
A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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